① 急！！！求市場營銷方面的外文翻譯
一、 商品銷售
研究市場營銷職能，經驗的做法是從商品銷售入手。美國市場營銷協會定義委員會1960年曾發表過這樣一個定義：「市場營銷是引導商品或勞務從生產者流向消費者或其使用者的一種企業活動。」這個定義雖不承認市場營銷就是銷售，但是認為市場營銷包含著銷售，也包含著對商品銷售過程的改進與完善。許多學者認為這個定義過於狹窄，不能充分展示市場營銷的功能。然而，不論其是否恰當，這個定義清楚地揭示了市場營銷與商品銷售的關系。
商品銷售對於企業和社會來說，具有兩種基本功能，一是將企業生產的商品推向消費領域；一是從消費者那裡獲得貨幣，以便對商品生產中的勞動消耗予以補償。企業是為了提高人們的生活水平而採用先進生產組織方式進行社會化生產的產物。在資源短缺的現實經濟中，它通過在一定程度上實現資源集中和生產專業化，能夠利用規模經濟規律來提高生產效率，創造和傳播新的生活標准。商品銷售是生產效率提高的最終完成環節，即通過這個環節把企業生產的產品轉移到消費者手上，滿足其生活需要。在另一方面，社會選擇市場和商品交換方式，在企業轉讓產品給消費者的同時，通過讓企業獲得貨幣，是因為社會需要保持企業生產經營的連續，以便更多地獲得提高生產效率的好處。通過商品銷售，讓商品變為貨幣，社會可以為企業補充和追加投入生產要素，而企業因此也獲得了生存和發展的條件。
商品銷售十分重要。企業需要盡最大努力來加強這一職能。其具體的活動包括：尋找和識別潛在顧客，接觸與傳遞商品交換意向信息，談判，簽訂合同，交貨和收款，提供銷售服務。然而，進行商品銷售是有條件的。要順利進行商品交換的有關條件包括：（1）至少有兩個主體，他們分別擁有在自己看來是價值相對較低、但在對方看來具有更高價值的有價物（商品、服務的貨幣），並且願意用自己所擁有之物來換取對方所擁有的有價物；（2）他們彼此了解對方所擁有的商品的質量和生產成本；（3）他們相互之間可以有效地進行意見溝通。例如洽談買賣條件，達成合同；（4）交易發生後他們都能如意地消費和享受所得之物。但是常常發現，這些條件不是處處成立的，因此企業經常會面臨銷售困難的局面。為了有效地組織商品銷售，將企業生產的商品更多地銷售出去，營銷部門就不能僅僅只做銷售工作，還必須進行市場調查研究、組織整體營銷、開發市場需求等活動，而且要等到後面這些工作取得一定效果以後，才進行商品銷售。
First, merchandise sales
Research marketing functions, experience from the practice of selling goods start. American Marketing Association definition of the Commission in 1960 had published such a definition: "Marketing is to guide procers of goods or services from consumers or users of the flow of a business activity." This definition does not recognize the marketing is marketing, But that marketing includes sales, also includes the sale of goods to improve and perfect the process. Many scholars believe that this definition is too narrow, can not fully demonstrate the functions of marketing. However, regardless of whether they are appropriate, this definition clearly reveals the marketing and merchandising relationship.
Sales of goods for business and society, has two basic functions, the first enterprise to the proction of consumer goods areas; First, from the consumer to obtain money, goods to the proction of labor compensation to be consumed. Enterprises is to improve people's living standards and the use of advanced proction organization concted a proct of social proction. The reality of the shortage of resources in the economy, it adopted a certain extent, to achieve the concentration of resources and proction specialization, to take advantage of economies of scale to improve proctivity, create and disseminate new standard of living. Sales of goods is more efficient proction of the final links, through this part of the proction of procts transferred to the hands of consumers to meet their needs. On the other hand, social choice markets and commodity exchange, the transfer of enterprise procts to consumers at the same time, through which enterprises will be able currency, because society needs to maintain a continuous enterprise proction and management, to improve access to the benefits of improved proction efficiency . Through the sale of goods, commodities into money, social enterprises can add and additional input factors of proction, and the corporate therefore also has been the survival and development conditions.
Sales of goods is very important. Enterprises need to make the greatest efforts to strengthen this function. Their specific activities include: find and identify potential customers, contacts and exchange of goods intention to convey information, negotiations, contracts, delivery and collection, provide marketing services. However, sales of goods is conditional. To smooth the commodity exchange the conditions include: (1) at least two of the main, they were in their possession appears to be relatively low value, but on the other side seems to have a higher value of the price of (goods, services Currency), and is willing to use their own were owned by owned by the other party in exchange for the valuables, (2) by their mutual understanding of each other's proct quality and proction costs, (3) between them can be effectively concted an opinion Communication. For example, negotiate terms, a contract, (4) After the transaction can be smug in their consumption and enjoyment of the proceeds. But often found that these conditions are not set up everywhere, and therefore enterprises often face the difficult sales situation. In order to effectively merchandise sales organizations, enterprises will be more proction of goods sold, marketing departments can not be only on the sale, must also conct market research, marketing organization as a whole, the development of market demand and other activities, but we have to wait until after these Achieved a certain effect, the only commodity sales.
② 有關服裝市場營銷的外文文獻，搭邊的也可以，
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④ 高分求[國際服裝發展現狀和品牌服裝營銷]方面的外文文獻
一、市場擴張與貿易增長動力
當今國際貿易中，非農產品佔世界貿易的80%,工業製成品是世界貿易的主流，而紡織品是其中最重要的組成部分。從1983年以來，世界服裝出口貿易的增長速度超過了世界製成品出口增長速度，在各類產品中出口增長速度僅次於辦公和通訊用品。在以SITC三位數計的產品中有10項紡織服裝產品的出口增長排列世界250種貿易產品的前50名，是世界貿易中增長最快的產品。解除配額後將會有更多的產品進入貿易高速增長的行列。
近年來，紡織品服裝國際貿易的增長動力更多地來自生產能力轉移和生產外包，而非市場絕對消費量的上升。在烏拉圭回合結束前的30年裡，世界服裝生產能力的一半已經從發達國家轉到發展中國家。這種轉移的主要動因來自發達國家與發展中國家工資成本的巨大差異。由於配額體制的存在這種轉移是十分緩慢的。在烏拉圭回合達成取消配額的時間框架後，發達國家的紡織服裝業加快了生產能力向生產成本低的國家和地區的轉移，跨國間的貿易也隨之大幅增加。上世紀90年代以來，紡織品特別是服裝生產外包的發展，使紡織品服裝貿易更加活躍，成為紡織服裝產品貿易持續增長不竭的源泉。生產外包同樣是發達國家利用發展中國家低成本生產優勢，維持其在該領域存在的戰略選擇，但生產外包比生產能力的轉移具有更深遠的影響，是當前和今後一段時期紡織品服裝國際貿易的主流。
到2005年配額取消之日，發達國家向發展中國家生產能力的轉移已基本完成，下一步發達國家通過使用信息技術，按照優化、快速、低成本的原則整合供貨網路，這樣將引發發展中國家之間的紡織服裝業的調整和轉移。原來純粹為追求配額而建的生產能力很可能就失去存在的意義，這部分貿易很可能將被取代。另外，由於取消配額是在WT0多邊體制下實施的，這極大地沖擊和削弱了一些雙邊或區域自由貿易協定給予特定國家的優惠和特權。一些由優惠和特權產生的貿易也將部分被取代。由此可見，取消配額後，生產和貿易扭曲將會被消除，貿易增長的原動力依然強勁。
二、新的市場
當紡織品服裝貿易不再受到數量限制，世界將會出現一個巨大的、有待開發的市場，這個巨大的有待開發的市場不只存在於發達國家，也存在於發展中國家中。配額體制的瓦解毫無疑問將使發達國家市場變得更為開放，增加更多的貿易機會。但在配額取消後，發展中國家紡織服裝市場也將變得進一步開放，其壓力來自取消配額後的發達國家。發達國家認為,2005年後紡織品服裝市場的開放基本上呈現一邊倒的情況，發展中國家在這個行業中有很強的競爭力，但卻保持著與之不對稱的高關稅，這種情形是不可持續的。發達國家希望多哈回合的一個主要目標是進一步大幅度降低關稅和非關稅壁壘，以便創造可比較的競爭機會，為長期增長奠定基礎並使貿易惠及各方。為此發達國家都提出了針對紡織品、服裝及鞋類產品的關稅減讓計劃。歐盟甚至建議所有WTO成員大幅度降低關稅，以使各成員間關稅水平的差距保持在一個統一幅度內，並盡可能趨於零。歐盟此計劃的目的是要發展中國家全面分擔市場開放的責任。歐盟認為多哈回合的成功需要在考慮發展水平差異的情況下各方利益的全面平衡，而紡織服裝產品將是所有成員利益全面平衡的主要部分。
因此，發展中國家將被迫進一步開放其國內紡織品服裝市場，新的市場將出現在東南亞較高收入的國家以及大的發展中國家內中高收入階層。這些新的市場會成為未來發達國家紡織生產廠家的重要目標。
另外新的市場也存在於發展中國家之間的貿易日益擴大。2001年發展中國家之間的貿易額共計6390億美元，其中紡織服裝530億美元,1990年－2001年發展中國家之間紡織品和服裝貿易的增長率分別為7%和11%。
三、世界紡織服裝貿易流向
世界紡織品服裝的貿易流向在烏拉圭回合後發生了較大的變化。
在紡織品貿易上，兩種趨勢比較明顯，一是傳統的區域內貿易比重下降。西歐和亞洲這兩個世界上最大的紡織品貿易市場各自內部交易比重都呈較大幅度的下降；二是發達地區增加了向發展中國家和地區輸出紡織品的力度。1995年至2001年西歐向中東歐獨聯體國家以及北美向拉美地區出口紡織品的年增長速度分別高達12%和15%。在服裝貿易上，最大的變化來自拉美向北美地區和中東歐獨聯體國家向西歐的出口。1995年至2001年拉美向北美市場和中東歐獨聯體國家向西歐國家出口的年平均增長率分別達到19%和16%,致使拉美對北美市場的依賴程度提高了11.6個百分點。另外，亞洲對北美市場的依賴程度提高也較快，亞洲向北美的出口比重同期提高近10個百分點，而亞洲向歐洲的出口比重同期只提高了不足3個百分點。
綜合紡織品服裝的貿易趨勢可以看出，北美與拉美、西歐與中東歐獨聯體這兩個區域的紡織服裝業的整合已經初具形態。隨著取消配額後日益增強的外部競爭，西歐內部貿易的下降不可避免，但取而代之的將是來自中東歐獨聯體國家甚至地中海、北非國家使用西歐面料生產的產品。北美市場也是如此。
四、市場集中程度
觀察世界主要紡織品服裝進口市場美國、歐盟、日本在1995年到2001年期間各自前5位的供應國和地區所佔的貿易比重(見表2),可以得出兩個重要的結論。第一，非配額國家進口紡織品服裝市場的集中程度大大高於配額國家和地區。2001年日本前5大服裝供應國已基本壟斷了日本進口服裝市場。相比之下美國前5大服裝供應國佔美國進口服裝市場的一半都不到，而且這一比例在過去幾年中還在下降。因此如果歐美取消配額，不論是紡織品還是服裝，進口市場的壟斷性將大為提高，即前5大供應國或地區所佔的進口市場比例至少要達到80%左右。第二，在受配額管理的國家，進口紡織品的市場集中程度要高於服裝，不論是美國還是歐盟都是如此。這表明上述兩個國家和地區對服裝進口的非關稅壁壘要高於對紡織品，政府在服裝貿易上的介入更多，尤其是美國。
配額取消後的短期、中期內，歐洲、北美將仍然是世界最重要的服裝市場，兩者合計佔世界服裝進口的2/3。美國商務部做的一項研究表明，到2005年－2006年，主要買家將把為他們供貨的國家減少一半，到2010年再減掉1/3。這就意味著有些國家、有些國營貿易商將會失掉原來擁有的市場。（
⑤ zara的市場營銷策略的英文文獻
這些都是國外網站上的，沒有中文翻譯的，看不懂的話試試翻譯器，查查字典什麼的，我要是給你翻譯怕誤導你。
Zara: Cool Clothes Now, Not Later
Ask any urban European female under the age of 30 and chances are she has shopped at Zara, the clothier whose inexpensive but stylish offerings have attracted a cult following. Zara also sells men』s fashions, again aimed at the stylish and youthful.
Mathieu Soto, a college tennis player from France with dark eyes and devastating good looks, was asked to compare Zara to The Gap, the U.S. - based clothing giant with a major presence in Europe. His response: 「I don』t know. I』ve never shopped at The Gap.」
Most U.S. young alts have never shopped at Zara, but that seems likely to change in the near future. In the past five years Zara has grown from 179 stores mostly in Spain to 450 stores in 29 countries including the United States and Canada. Zara now has stores in New York, New Jersey, Miami, and Toronto—with more on the way.
While Zara is unlikely to displace The Gap in the U.S. market, they are certain to offer U.S. consumers an option previously unavailable to them. They have a sound if unusual marketing strategy in which logistics plays an important role. Logistics also plays an important role in Zara』s growth plans, notably its expansion into the U.S. market.
Zara』s Marketing Strategy
Zara』s marketing strategy focuses on proct variety, speed-to-market, and store location. It is also notable for what it excludes. Zara does not advertise in the traditional sense. If you want to find out what』s currently available at the Zara stores you have two options: go to the web site or go to the store. Zara puts 10,000 different items on the store shelves in a single year. It can take a new style from concept to store shelf in 10-14 days in an instry where nine months is the norm. In its primary European markets, Zara locates its stores close together. Visitors comment that Zara in Madrid is like Starbucks in a major U.S. city—you see another store on every street corner.
Zara』s Toronto store is located just north of the center of downtown in a major shopping district dense with malls and lined with stand-alone stores and giant office buildings. The potential for intense competition is clear.
「These office buildings are full of the people we want as customers. We want them to stop in at lunch or after work. We want to see them often, so we have to change what we have on the shelves,」 said Zara』s Toronto store manager. 「They could shop in a lot of other stores, so we have to make it worth their time to come here.」
This also helps explain why the company does not advertise. If a Zara customer wants to know what Zara has, he or she must go to the store. The stock changes often, with most items staying on the shelf for only a month, so the customer often finds something new and appealing. By the same token, if the customer finds nothing to buy this visit, the store』s regular customers know that tomorrow or next week—sometime soon—new goods will be on Zara』s shelves. That makes it worth another visit.
Zara relies heavily on store employees for market information. If a customer looks at a sweater and comments, 「That would look really nice with a cowl collar,」 an employee can relay that information to Spain where managers decide whether or not to proce the suggested item. If they decide to make it, they can put it on the shelf in Toronto in two weeks or less, partly because they ship by air. Ocean shipping would add at least another ten days to the time it takes to get the proct in front of the customer, undermining the speed-to-market and proct variety strategy.
The Role of Logistics
Putting the variety of goods on the shelves in Toronto and other North American stores requires an unusual, though not unique, logistics strategy for the fashion instry. Zara air expresses goods from its single distribution center in Spain, usually in small quantities. In the 1970』s, The Limited used a similar strategy to support its test marketing, air expressing small quantities of new styles from Asia to U.S. stores. In Zara』s strategy, however, the speedy shipments are part of the core strategy, not just test marketing. Zara also ships frequently, allowing lower inventories while serving its multinational market from a single distribution center in Spain.
「We receive shipments o n Tuesday and Saturday, which means that we have different items in the store at least twice a week. While each shipment replenishes items that sell well, each also includes new items. That』s why our customers come in often,」 the Toronto store manager said. 「We might get ten of one item and five of another. We』re constantly testing.」
The density of Zara』s store locations in Europe helps achieve logistics efficiencies. They can fill trucks for frequent shipment in markets close to proction and ship larger quantities by air to more distant stores. Zara keeps transportation costs low on the supply side, since most of the proction takes place in Spain. This contrasts radically to most large fashion manufacturers, which rely on low cost manufacturing in Asia and South America, but then pay higher inventory costs and move goods to market more slowly.
The air express strategy also allows Zara to maintain a multinational market presence with only one distribution center. They trade higher transportation costs for lower warehousing and inventory costs. Add to this the idea that fast transportation
supports the proct-innovation strategy that is the heart of Zara』s marketing, and the importance of logistics in Zara』s marketing strategy is clear.
The Results and the Future
Zara』s parent company, Inditex, reached $2.7 billion in 2001 revenue. This made it the fastest growing clothing manufacturer in the world. Zara, Inditex』s fastest growing division, turns its inventory twice as fast as major competitors, with an inventory-to-sales of 7% compared to an instry average of 14%. Their profitability in European operations (15%) is fifty percent higher than that of its major competitors. Zara manufactures 80% of its clothing in Europe, with most of the remaining 20% is sourced in Mexico.
While top managers are understandably closed-mouthed about their plans, Zara seems ideally positioned to penetrate the U.S. market in a major way. With some manufacturing already in Mexico, they could easily open a second distribution center aimed directly at the U.S. market. This would make their youth-oriented styles widely available in the world』s most lucrative market.
Question 1 – Zara』s Business Model and Competitive Analysis
Zara, the most profitable brand of Inditex SA, the Spanish clothing retail group, opened its first store in 1975 in La Coruña, Spain; a city which eventually became the central headquarters for Zara』s global operations. Since then they have expanded operations into 45 countries with 531 stores located in the most important shopping districts of more than 400 cities in Europe, the Americas, Asia and Africa. Throughout this expansion Zara has remained focused on its core fashion philosophy that creativity and quality design together with a rapid response to market demands will yield profitable results. In order to realized these results Zara developed a business model that incorporated the following three goals for operations: develop a system the requires short lead times, decrease quantities proced to decrease inventory risk, and increase the number of available styles and/or choice. These goals helped to formulate a unique value proposition: to combine moderate prices with the ability to offer new clothing styles faster than its competitors. These three goals helped to shape Zara』s current business model.
Zara』s Business Model
Zara』s business model can be broken down into three basic components: concept, capabilities, and value drivers. Zara』s fundamental concept is to maintain design, proction, and distribution processes that will enable Zara to respond quickly to shifts in consumer demands. José María Castellano, CEO of Inditex stated that "the fashion world is in constant flux and is driven not by supply but by customer demand. We need to give consumers what they want, and if I go to South America or Asia to make clothes, I simply can't move fast enough." This highlights the importance of this quick response time to Zara』s operations.
Capabilities of Zara, or the required resources needed to exploit the opportunities and execute this conceptual strategy, are numerous for Zara. Zara maintains tight control over their proction processes keeping design and manufacturing in-house or with some strategic partnerships located nearby Headquarters. Currently, Zara maintains 80% of its proction processes in Europe, 50% in Spain which is very close to La Coruña headquarters. They have strategic agreements with local manufacturers that ensure timely delivery and service. Through these strategic partnerships and the benefits brought by this proximity of manufacturing and operational processes, Zara maintains the flexibility necessary to design and proce over 12000 new items annually. This capability allows Zara to achieve their strategy of expedited response to consumer demand.
Value drivers for Zara are both tangible and intangible in the benefits that are returned to all stakeholders. Tangibly, Inditex, the parent company of Zara, has 11.02% net margin on operations and their market capitalization (Equity – market value) is