① 急！！！求市场营销方面的外文翻译
一、 商品销售
研究市场营销职能，经验的做法是从商品销售入手。美国市场营销协会定义委员会1960年曾发表过这样一个定义：“市场营销是引导商品或劳务从生产者流向消费者或其使用者的一种企业活动。”这个定义虽不承认市场营销就是销售，但是认为市场营销包含着销售，也包含着对商品销售过程的改进与完善。许多学者认为这个定义过于狭窄，不能充分展示市场营销的功能。然而，不论其是否恰当，这个定义清楚地揭示了市场营销与商品销售的关系。
商品销售对于企业和社会来说，具有两种基本功能，一是将企业生产的商品推向消费领域；一是从消费者那里获得货币，以便对商品生产中的劳动消耗予以补偿。企业是为了提高人们的生活水平而采用先进生产组织方式进行社会化生产的产物。在资源短缺的现实经济中，它通过在一定程度上实现资源集中和生产专业化，能够利用规模经济规律来提高生产效率，创造和传播新的生活标准。商品销售是生产效率提高的最终完成环节，即通过这个环节把企业生产的产品转移到消费者手上，满足其生活需要。在另一方面，社会选择市场和商品交换方式，在企业转让产品给消费者的同时，通过让企业获得货币，是因为社会需要保持企业生产经营的连续，以便更多地获得提高生产效率的好处。通过商品销售，让商品变为货币，社会可以为企业补充和追加投入生产要素，而企业因此也获得了生存和发展的条件。
商品销售十分重要。企业需要尽最大努力来加强这一职能。其具体的活动包括：寻找和识别潜在顾客，接触与传递商品交换意向信息，谈判，签订合同，交货和收款，提供销售服务。然而，进行商品销售是有条件的。要顺利进行商品交换的有关条件包括：（1）至少有两个主体，他们分别拥有在自己看来是价值相对较低、但在对方看来具有更高价值的有价物（商品、服务的货币），并且愿意用自己所拥有之物来换取对方所拥有的有价物；（2）他们彼此了解对方所拥有的商品的质量和生产成本；（3）他们相互之间可以有效地进行意见沟通。例如洽谈买卖条件，达成合同；（4）交易发生后他们都能如意地消费和享受所得之物。但是常常发现，这些条件不是处处成立的，因此企业经常会面临销售困难的局面。为了有效地组织商品销售，将企业生产的商品更多地销售出去，营销部门就不能仅仅只做销售工作，还必须进行市场调查研究、组织整体营销、开发市场需求等活动，而且要等到后面这些工作取得一定效果以后，才进行商品销售。
First, merchandise sales
Research marketing functions, experience from the practice of selling goods start. American Marketing Association definition of the Commission in 1960 had published such a definition: "Marketing is to guide procers of goods or services from consumers or users of the flow of a business activity." This definition does not recognize the marketing is marketing, But that marketing includes sales, also includes the sale of goods to improve and perfect the process. Many scholars believe that this definition is too narrow, can not fully demonstrate the functions of marketing. However, regardless of whether they are appropriate, this definition clearly reveals the marketing and merchandising relationship.
Sales of goods for business and society, has two basic functions, the first enterprise to the proction of consumer goods areas; First, from the consumer to obtain money, goods to the proction of labor compensation to be consumed. Enterprises is to improve people's living standards and the use of advanced proction organization concted a proct of social proction. The reality of the shortage of resources in the economy, it adopted a certain extent, to achieve the concentration of resources and proction specialization, to take advantage of economies of scale to improve proctivity, create and disseminate new standard of living. Sales of goods is more efficient proction of the final links, through this part of the proction of procts transferred to the hands of consumers to meet their needs. On the other hand, social choice markets and commodity exchange, the transfer of enterprise procts to consumers at the same time, through which enterprises will be able currency, because society needs to maintain a continuous enterprise proction and management, to improve access to the benefits of improved proction efficiency . Through the sale of goods, commodities into money, social enterprises can add and additional input factors of proction, and the corporate therefore also has been the survival and development conditions.
Sales of goods is very important. Enterprises need to make the greatest efforts to strengthen this function. Their specific activities include: find and identify potential customers, contacts and exchange of goods intention to convey information, negotiations, contracts, delivery and collection, provide marketing services. However, sales of goods is conditional. To smooth the commodity exchange the conditions include: (1) at least two of the main, they were in their possession appears to be relatively low value, but on the other side seems to have a higher value of the price of (goods, services Currency), and is willing to use their own were owned by owned by the other party in exchange for the valuables, (2) by their mutual understanding of each other's proct quality and proction costs, (3) between them can be effectively concted an opinion Communication. For example, negotiate terms, a contract, (4) After the transaction can be smug in their consumption and enjoyment of the proceeds. But often found that these conditions are not set up everywhere, and therefore enterprises often face the difficult sales situation. In order to effectively merchandise sales organizations, enterprises will be more proction of goods sold, marketing departments can not be only on the sale, must also conct market research, marketing organization as a whole, the development of market demand and other activities, but we have to wait until after these Achieved a certain effect, the only commodity sales.
② 有关服装市场营销的外文文献，搭边的也可以，
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③ 寻找一篇市场营销外文文献翻译，中英文对照那种，用于毕业论文的文献参考。3000字左右
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④ 高分求[国际服装发展现状和品牌服装营销]方面的外文文献
一、市场扩张与贸易增长动力
当今国际贸易中，非农产品占世界贸易的80%,工业制成品是世界贸易的主流，而纺织品是其中最重要的组成部分。从1983年以来，世界服装出口贸易的增长速度超过了世界制成品出口增长速度，在各类产品中出口增长速度仅次于办公和通讯用品。在以SITC三位数计的产品中有10项纺织服装产品的出口增长排列世界250种贸易产品的前50名，是世界贸易中增长最快的产品。解除配额后将会有更多的产品进入贸易高速增长的行列。
近年来，纺织品服装国际贸易的增长动力更多地来自生产能力转移和生产外包，而非市场绝对消费量的上升。在乌拉圭回合结束前的30年里，世界服装生产能力的一半已经从发达国家转到发展中国家。这种转移的主要动因来自发达国家与发展中国家工资成本的巨大差异。由于配额体制的存在这种转移是十分缓慢的。在乌拉圭回合达成取消配额的时间框架后，发达国家的纺织服装业加快了生产能力向生产成本低的国家和地区的转移，跨国间的贸易也随之大幅增加。上世纪90年代以来，纺织品特别是服装生产外包的发展，使纺织品服装贸易更加活跃，成为纺织服装产品贸易持续增长不竭的源泉。生产外包同样是发达国家利用发展中国家低成本生产优势，维持其在该领域存在的战略选择，但生产外包比生产能力的转移具有更深远的影响，是当前和今后一段时期纺织品服装国际贸易的主流。
到2005年配额取消之日，发达国家向发展中国家生产能力的转移已基本完成，下一步发达国家通过使用信息技术，按照优化、快速、低成本的原则整合供货网络，这样将引发发展中国家之间的纺织服装业的调整和转移。原来纯粹为追求配额而建的生产能力很可能就失去存在的意义，这部分贸易很可能将被取代。另外，由于取消配额是在WT0多边体制下实施的，这极大地冲击和削弱了一些双边或区域自由贸易协定给予特定国家的优惠和特权。一些由优惠和特权产生的贸易也将部分被取代。由此可见，取消配额后，生产和贸易扭曲将会被消除，贸易增长的原动力依然强劲。
二、新的市场
当纺织品服装贸易不再受到数量限制，世界将会出现一个巨大的、有待开发的市场，这个巨大的有待开发的市场不只存在于发达国家，也存在于发展中国家中。配额体制的瓦解毫无疑问将使发达国家市场变得更为开放，增加更多的贸易机会。但在配额取消后，发展中国家纺织服装市场也将变得进一步开放，其压力来自取消配额后的发达国家。发达国家认为,2005年后纺织品服装市场的开放基本上呈现一边倒的情况，发展中国家在这个行业中有很强的竞争力，但却保持着与之不对称的高关税，这种情形是不可持续的。发达国家希望多哈回合的一个主要目标是进一步大幅度降低关税和非关税壁垒，以便创造可比较的竞争机会，为长期增长奠定基础并使贸易惠及各方。为此发达国家都提出了针对纺织品、服装及鞋类产品的关税减让计划。欧盟甚至建议所有WTO成员大幅度降低关税，以使各成员间关税水平的差距保持在一个统一幅度内，并尽可能趋于零。欧盟此计划的目的是要发展中国家全面分担市场开放的责任。欧盟认为多哈回合的成功需要在考虑发展水平差异的情况下各方利益的全面平衡，而纺织服装产品将是所有成员利益全面平衡的主要部分。
因此，发展中国家将被迫进一步开放其国内纺织品服装市场，新的市场将出现在东南亚较高收入的国家以及大的发展中国家内中高收入阶层。这些新的市场会成为未来发达国家纺织生产厂家的重要目标。
另外新的市场也存在于发展中国家之间的贸易日益扩大。2001年发展中国家之间的贸易额共计6390亿美元，其中纺织服装530亿美元,1990年－2001年发展中国家之间纺织品和服装贸易的增长率分别为7%和11%。
三、世界纺织服装贸易流向
世界纺织品服装的贸易流向在乌拉圭回合后发生了较大的变化。
在纺织品贸易上，两种趋势比较明显，一是传统的区域内贸易比重下降。西欧和亚洲这两个世界上最大的纺织品贸易市场各自内部交易比重都呈较大幅度的下降；二是发达地区增加了向发展中国家和地区输出纺织品的力度。1995年至2001年西欧向中东欧独联体国家以及北美向拉美地区出口纺织品的年增长速度分别高达12%和15%。在服装贸易上，最大的变化来自拉美向北美地区和中东欧独联体国家向西欧的出口。1995年至2001年拉美向北美市场和中东欧独联体国家向西欧国家出口的年平均增长率分别达到19%和16%,致使拉美对北美市场的依赖程度提高了11.6个百分点。另外，亚洲对北美市场的依赖程度提高也较快，亚洲向北美的出口比重同期提高近10个百分点，而亚洲向欧洲的出口比重同期只提高了不足3个百分点。
综合纺织品服装的贸易趋势可以看出，北美与拉美、西欧与中东欧独联体这两个区域的纺织服装业的整合已经初具形态。随着取消配额后日益增强的外部竞争，西欧内部贸易的下降不可避免，但取而代之的将是来自中东欧独联体国家甚至地中海、北非国家使用西欧面料生产的产品。北美市场也是如此。
四、市场集中程度
观察世界主要纺织品服装进口市场美国、欧盟、日本在1995年到2001年期间各自前5位的供应国和地区所占的贸易比重(见表2),可以得出两个重要的结论。第一，非配额国家进口纺织品服装市场的集中程度大大高于配额国家和地区。2001年日本前5大服装供应国已基本垄断了日本进口服装市场。相比之下美国前5大服装供应国占美国进口服装市场的一半都不到，而且这一比例在过去几年中还在下降。因此如果欧美取消配额，不论是纺织品还是服装，进口市场的垄断性将大为提高，即前5大供应国或地区所占的进口市场比例至少要达到80%左右。第二，在受配额管理的国家，进口纺织品的市场集中程度要高于服装，不论是美国还是欧盟都是如此。这表明上述两个国家和地区对服装进口的非关税壁垒要高于对纺织品，政府在服装贸易上的介入更多，尤其是美国。
配额取消后的短期、中期内，欧洲、北美将仍然是世界最重要的服装市场，两者合计占世界服装进口的2/3。美国商务部做的一项研究表明，到2005年－2006年，主要买家将把为他们供货的国家减少一半，到2010年再减掉1/3。这就意味着有些国家、有些国营贸易商将会失掉原来拥有的市场。（
⑤ zara的市场营销策略的英文文献
这些都是国外网站上的，没有中文翻译的，看不懂的话试试翻译器，查查字典什么的，我要是给你翻译怕误导你。
Zara: Cool Clothes Now, Not Later
Ask any urban European female under the age of 30 and chances are she has shopped at Zara, the clothier whose inexpensive but stylish offerings have attracted a cult following. Zara also sells men’s fashions, again aimed at the stylish and youthful.
Mathieu Soto, a college tennis player from France with dark eyes and devastating good looks, was asked to compare Zara to The Gap, the U.S. - based clothing giant with a major presence in Europe. His response: “I don’t know. I’ve never shopped at The Gap.”
Most U.S. young alts have never shopped at Zara, but that seems likely to change in the near future. In the past five years Zara has grown from 179 stores mostly in Spain to 450 stores in 29 countries including the United States and Canada. Zara now has stores in New York, New Jersey, Miami, and Toronto—with more on the way.
While Zara is unlikely to displace The Gap in the U.S. market, they are certain to offer U.S. consumers an option previously unavailable to them. They have a sound if unusual marketing strategy in which logistics plays an important role. Logistics also plays an important role in Zara’s growth plans, notably its expansion into the U.S. market.
Zara’s Marketing Strategy
Zara’s marketing strategy focuses on proct variety, speed-to-market, and store location. It is also notable for what it excludes. Zara does not advertise in the traditional sense. If you want to find out what’s currently available at the Zara stores you have two options: go to the web site or go to the store. Zara puts 10,000 different items on the store shelves in a single year. It can take a new style from concept to store shelf in 10-14 days in an instry where nine months is the norm. In its primary European markets, Zara locates its stores close together. Visitors comment that Zara in Madrid is like Starbucks in a major U.S. city—you see another store on every street corner.
Zara’s Toronto store is located just north of the center of downtown in a major shopping district dense with malls and lined with stand-alone stores and giant office buildings. The potential for intense competition is clear.
“These office buildings are full of the people we want as customers. We want them to stop in at lunch or after work. We want to see them often, so we have to change what we have on the shelves,” said Zara’s Toronto store manager. “They could shop in a lot of other stores, so we have to make it worth their time to come here.”
This also helps explain why the company does not advertise. If a Zara customer wants to know what Zara has, he or she must go to the store. The stock changes often, with most items staying on the shelf for only a month, so the customer often finds something new and appealing. By the same token, if the customer finds nothing to buy this visit, the store’s regular customers know that tomorrow or next week—sometime soon—new goods will be on Zara’s shelves. That makes it worth another visit.
Zara relies heavily on store employees for market information. If a customer looks at a sweater and comments, “That would look really nice with a cowl collar,” an employee can relay that information to Spain where managers decide whether or not to proce the suggested item. If they decide to make it, they can put it on the shelf in Toronto in two weeks or less, partly because they ship by air. Ocean shipping would add at least another ten days to the time it takes to get the proct in front of the customer, undermining the speed-to-market and proct variety strategy.
The Role of Logistics
Putting the variety of goods on the shelves in Toronto and other North American stores requires an unusual, though not unique, logistics strategy for the fashion instry. Zara air expresses goods from its single distribution center in Spain, usually in small quantities. In the 1970’s, The Limited used a similar strategy to support its test marketing, air expressing small quantities of new styles from Asia to U.S. stores. In Zara’s strategy, however, the speedy shipments are part of the core strategy, not just test marketing. Zara also ships frequently, allowing lower inventories while serving its multinational market from a single distribution center in Spain.
“We receive shipments o n Tuesday and Saturday, which means that we have different items in the store at least twice a week. While each shipment replenishes items that sell well, each also includes new items. That’s why our customers come in often,” the Toronto store manager said. “We might get ten of one item and five of another. We’re constantly testing.”
The density of Zara’s store locations in Europe helps achieve logistics efficiencies. They can fill trucks for frequent shipment in markets close to proction and ship larger quantities by air to more distant stores. Zara keeps transportation costs low on the supply side, since most of the proction takes place in Spain. This contrasts radically to most large fashion manufacturers, which rely on low cost manufacturing in Asia and South America, but then pay higher inventory costs and move goods to market more slowly.
The air express strategy also allows Zara to maintain a multinational market presence with only one distribution center. They trade higher transportation costs for lower warehousing and inventory costs. Add to this the idea that fast transportation
supports the proct-innovation strategy that is the heart of Zara’s marketing, and the importance of logistics in Zara’s marketing strategy is clear.
The Results and the Future
Zara’s parent company, Inditex, reached $2.7 billion in 2001 revenue. This made it the fastest growing clothing manufacturer in the world. Zara, Inditex’s fastest growing division, turns its inventory twice as fast as major competitors, with an inventory-to-sales of 7% compared to an instry average of 14%. Their profitability in European operations (15%) is fifty percent higher than that of its major competitors. Zara manufactures 80% of its clothing in Europe, with most of the remaining 20% is sourced in Mexico.
While top managers are understandably closed-mouthed about their plans, Zara seems ideally positioned to penetrate the U.S. market in a major way. With some manufacturing already in Mexico, they could easily open a second distribution center aimed directly at the U.S. market. This would make their youth-oriented styles widely available in the world’s most lucrative market.
Question 1 – Zara’s Business Model and Competitive Analysis
Zara, the most profitable brand of Inditex SA, the Spanish clothing retail group, opened its first store in 1975 in La Coruña, Spain; a city which eventually became the central headquarters for Zara’s global operations. Since then they have expanded operations into 45 countries with 531 stores located in the most important shopping districts of more than 400 cities in Europe, the Americas, Asia and Africa. Throughout this expansion Zara has remained focused on its core fashion philosophy that creativity and quality design together with a rapid response to market demands will yield profitable results. In order to realized these results Zara developed a business model that incorporated the following three goals for operations: develop a system the requires short lead times, decrease quantities proced to decrease inventory risk, and increase the number of available styles and/or choice. These goals helped to formulate a unique value proposition: to combine moderate prices with the ability to offer new clothing styles faster than its competitors. These three goals helped to shape Zara’s current business model.
Zara’s Business Model
Zara’s business model can be broken down into three basic components: concept, capabilities, and value drivers. Zara’s fundamental concept is to maintain design, proction, and distribution processes that will enable Zara to respond quickly to shifts in consumer demands. José María Castellano, CEO of Inditex stated that "the fashion world is in constant flux and is driven not by supply but by customer demand. We need to give consumers what they want, and if I go to South America or Asia to make clothes, I simply can't move fast enough." This highlights the importance of this quick response time to Zara’s operations.
Capabilities of Zara, or the required resources needed to exploit the opportunities and execute this conceptual strategy, are numerous for Zara. Zara maintains tight control over their proction processes keeping design and manufacturing in-house or with some strategic partnerships located nearby Headquarters. Currently, Zara maintains 80% of its proction processes in Europe, 50% in Spain which is very close to La Coruña headquarters. They have strategic agreements with local manufacturers that ensure timely delivery and service. Through these strategic partnerships and the benefits brought by this proximity of manufacturing and operational processes, Zara maintains the flexibility necessary to design and proce over 12000 new items annually. This capability allows Zara to achieve their strategy of expedited response to consumer demand.
Value drivers for Zara are both tangible and intangible in the benefits that are returned to all stakeholders. Tangibly, Inditex, the parent company of Zara, has 11.02% net margin on operations and their market capitalization (Equity – market value) is