農產品電子商務外文文獻

7. 農產品出口的外文文獻

外文文獻有，翻譯沒有，翻譯得靠你自己了，如果需要直接網路hi中留言同時貼出問題的鏈接地址和郵箱地址即可，希望能滿足你的需要，能幫到你，並請及時知道評價，多多給點懸賞分吧，急用的話請多選賞點分吧，這樣更多的知友才會及時幫到你，我找到也是很花時間的，並請及時採納

8. 急求關於物流的外文文獻，最好是關於農產品物流的！

Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one location to another. Transport is performed by various modes, such as air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline and space. The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations.

Infrastructure consists of the fixed installations necessary for transport, and may be roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals and pipelines, and terminals such as airports, railway stations, bus stations, wharehouses, trucking terminals, refueling depots (including fueling docks and fuel stations) and seaports. Terminals may both be used for interchange of passengers and cargo, and for maintenance.

Vehicles traveling on these networks include vehicles of appropriate types such as automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks people, helocopters and aircraft. Operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the proceres set for this purpose including financing, legalities and policies. In the transport instry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be either public or private, depending on the country and mode.

Passenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheled services, or private. Freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of rable items. Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization, but has a deteriorizing impact on the environment. While it is heavily subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow, and restrain urban sprawl.

Mode
Main article: Mode of transport
A mode of transport is a technological solution that used a fundamentally different vehicle, infrastructure and operations. The transport of a person or cargo may be by one or more modes, the latter called intermodal transport. Each mode has its advantages and disadvantages, and will be chosen for a trip depended on the nature of the purpose, cargo and destination. While there transport in air and on water has their own mode, land transport has several modes.

Human-powered transport remains common in developing countries
[edit] Human-powered
Main article: Human-powered transport
Human-powered transport is the transport of person(s) and/or goods using human muscle-power. Like animal-powered transport, human-powered transport has existed since time immemorial in the form of walking, running and swimming. Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human-power. Many forms of human-powered transport remain popular for reasons of cost-saving, leisure, physical exercise and environmentalism. Human-powered transport is sometimes the only type available, especially in underdeveloped or inaccessible regions. It is considered an ideal form of sustainable transportation.

Although humans are able to walk without infrastructure, the transport can be enhanced through the use of roads, especially when enforcing the human power with vehicles, such as bicycles and inline skates. Human-powered vehicles have also been developed for highly encumbering environments, such as snow and water, by watercraft rowings and skiing; even the air can be entered with human-powered aircraft.

[edit] Animal-powered
Main article: Animal-powered transport
Animal-powered transport is the use of working animals for the movement of people and goods. Humans may ride some of the animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, alone or in teams, to pull sleds or wheeled vehicles. Animals are superior to people in their speed, enrance and carrying capacity; prior to the Instrial Revolution they were used for all land transport impracticable for people, and they remain an important mode of transport in less developed areas of the world.

[edit] Air
Main article: Aviation

Scandinavian Airlines System MD-80 airliner at Kiruna Airport, SwedenA fixed-wing aircraft, commonly called airplane, is a heavier-than-air craft where movement of the air in relation to the wings is used to generate lift. The term is used to distinguish from rotary-wing aircraft, where the movement of the lift surfaces relative to the air generates lift. A gyroplane is both fixed-wing and rotary-wing. Fixed-wing aircraft range from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large airliners and military cargo aircraft.

Two necessities for aircraft are air flow over the wings for lift, and an area for landing. The majority of aircraft also need an airport with the infrastructure to receive maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the loading and unloading of crew, cargo and passengers. While the vast majority of aircraft land and take off on land, some are capable of take off and landing on ice, snow and calm water.

The aircraft is the second fastest method of transport, after the rocket. Commercial jets can reach up to 875 kilometres per hour (544 mph), single-engine aircraft 175 kilometres per hour (109 mph). Aviation is able to quickly transport people and limited amounts of cargo over longer distances, but incur high costs and energy use; for short distances or in inaccessible places helicopters can be used.[1]

InterCityExpress, a German high-speed passenger train
[edit] Rail
Main article: Rail transport
Rail transport is where train runs along a two parallel steel rails, known as a railway or railroad. They rails are anchored perpendicular to ties (or sleepers) of timber, concrete or steel, to maintain a consistent distance apart, or gauge. The rails and perpendicular beams are placed on a foundation made of concrete, or compressed earth and gravel in a bed of ballast. Alternative methods include monorail and maglev.

A train consists of one or more connected vehicle that run on the rails. Propulsion is commonly provided by a locomotive, that hauls a series of unpowered cars, that can carry passengers or freight. The locomotive can be powered by steam, diesel or by electricity supplied by a trackside systems. Alternatively, some or all the cars can be powered, known as a multiple unit. Also, a train can be powered by horses, cables, gravity, pneumatics and gas turbines. Railed vehicles move with much less friction than rubber tires on paved roads, making trains more energy efficient, though not as efficient as ships.

Intercity trains are long-haul services connecting cities;[2] modern high-speed rail is capable of speeds up to 350 km/h (220 mph), but this requires specially-built track. Regional and commuter trains feed cities from suburbs and surrounding areas, while intra-urban transport is performed by high-capacity tramways and rapid transits, often making up the backbone of a city's public transport. Freight trains traditionally used box cars, requiring manual loading and unloading of the cargo. Since the 1960s, container trains have become the dominentsolution for general freight, while large quantities of bulk are transported by dedicated trains.

[edit] Road
Main article: Road transport

Interstate 80 near Berkeley, United StatesA road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places.[3] Roads are typically smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel;[4] though they need not be, and historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or maintenance.[5] In urban areas, roads may pass through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a al function as urban space easement and route.[6]

The most common road vehicle is the automobile; a wheeled passenger vehicle that carries its own motor. Other users of roads include buses, trucks, motorcycles, bicycles and pedestrians. As of 2002, there were 590 million automobiles worldwide.

Automobiles offer high flexibility and with low capacity, but are deemed with high energy and area use, and the main source of noise and air pollution in cities; buses allow for more efficient travel at the cost of reced flexibility.[7] Road transport by truck is often the initial and final stage of freight transport.

[edit] Water
Main article: Ship transport

Automobile ferry in CroatiaWater transport is the process of transport a watercraft, such as a barge, boat, ship or sailboat, over a body of water, such as a sea, ocean, lake, canal or river. The need for buoyancy unites watercraft, and makes the hull a dominant aspect of its construction, maintenance and appearance.

In the 1800s the first steam ships were developed, using a steam engine to drive a paddle wheel or propeller to move the ship. The steam was proced using wood or coal. Now most ships have an engine using a slightly refined type of petroleum called bunker fuel. Some specialized ships, such as submarines, use nuclear power to proce the steam. Recreational or ecational craft still use wind power, while some smaller craft use internal combustion engines to drive one or more propellers, or in the case of jet boats, an inboard water jet. In shallow draft areas, hovercraft are propelled by large pusher-prop fans.

Although slow, modern sea transport is a highly effective method of transporting large quantities of non-perishable goods. Transport by water is significantly less costly than air transport for trans-continental shipping;[8] short sea shipping and ferries remain viable in coastal areas.[9][10]

Trans-Alaska Pipeline for crude oil
[edit] Other
Pipeline transport sends goods through a pipe, most commonly liquid and gases are sent, but pneumatic tubes can send solid capsules using compressed air. Any chemically stable liquid or gas can be sent through a pipeline. Short-distance systems exist for sewage, slurry, water and beer, while long-distance networks are used for petroleum and natural gas.

Cable transport is a broad mode where vehicles are pulled by cables instead of an internal power source. It is most commonly used at steep gradient. Typical solutions include aerial tramway, elevators, escalator and ski lifts; some of these are also categorized as conveyor transport.

Spaceflight is transport out of Earth's atmosphere into outer space by means of a spacecraft. While large amounts of research have gone into technology, it is rarely used except to put satellites into orbit, and conct scientific experiments. However, man has landed on the moon, and probes have been send to all the planets of the Solar System.

[edit] Elements

Bridges, such as Golden Gate Bridge, allow roads and railways to cross bodies of water
[edit] Infrastructure
Main article: Infrastructure
Infrastructure is the fixed installations that allow a vehicle to operate. It consists of both a way, terminal and facilities for parking and maintenance. For rail, pipeline, road and cable transport, the entire way the vehicle travels must be built up. Air and water craft are able to avoid this, since the airway and seaway do not need to be built up. However, they require fixed infrastructure at terminals.

Terminals such as airports, ports and stations, are locations were passengers and freight can be transferred from one vehicle or mode to another. For passenger transport, terminals are integrating different modes to allow riders to interchange to take advantage of each mode's advantages. For instance, airport rail links connect airports to the city centers and suburbs. The terminals for automobiles are parking lots, while buses and coaches can operates from simple stops.[11] For freight, terminals act as transshipment points, though some cargo is transported directly from the point of proction to the point of use.

The financing of infrastructure can either be public or private. Transport is often a natural monopoly and a necessity for the public; roads, and in some countries railways and airports are funded through taxation. New infrastructure projects can involve large spendings, and are often financed through debt. Many infrastructure owners therefore impose usage fees, such as landing fees at airports, or toll plazas on roads. Independent of this, authorities may impose taxes on the purchase or use of vehicles.

A Peugeot 206 participating in the World Rally Championship
[edit] Vehicles
Main article: Vehicle
A vehicle is any non-living device that is used to move people and goods. Unlike the infrastructure, the vehicle moves along with the cargo and riders. Vehicles that do not operate on land, are usually called crafts. Unless being pulled by a cable or muscle-power, the vehicle must provide its own propulsion; this is most commonly done through a steam engine, combustion engine, electric motor, a jet engine or a rocket, though other means of propulsion also exist. Vehicles also need a system of converting the energy into movement; this is most commonly done through wheels, propellers and pressure.

Vehicles are most commonly staffed by a driver. However, some systems, such as people movers and some rapid transits, are fully automated. For passenger transport, the vehicle must have a compartment for the passengers. Simple vehicles, such as automobiles, bicycles or simple aircraft, may have one of the passengers as a driver.

[edit] Operation

Incheon International Airport, South KoreaPrivate transport is only subject to the owner of the vehicle, who operates the vehicle themselves. For public transport and freight transport, operations are done through private enterprise or by governments. The infrastructure and vehicles may be owned and operated by the same company, or they may be operated by different entities. Traditionally, many countries have had a national airline and national railway. Since the 1980s, many of these have been privatized. International shipping remains a highly competitive instry with little regulation,[12] but ports can be public owned.[13]

[edit] Function
Relocation of travelers and cargo are the most common uses of transport. However, other uses exist, such as the strategic and tactical relocation of armed forces ring warfare, or the civilian mobility construction or emergency equipment.

Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus in Mum, India
[edit] Passenger
Main article: Travel
Passenger transport, or travel, is divided into public and private transport. Public is scheled services on fixed routes, while private is vehicles that provide ad hoc services at the riders desire. The latter offers better flexibility, but has lower capacity, and a higher environmental impact. Travel may be as part of daily commuting, for business, leisure or migration.

Short-haul transport is dominated by the automobile and mass transit. The latter consists of buses in rural and small cities, supplemented with commuter rail, trams and rapid transit in larger cities. Long-haul transport involves the use of the automobile, trains, coaches and aircraft, the last of which have become predominantly used for the longest, including intercontinental, travel. Intermodal passenger transport is where a journey is performed through the use of several modes of transport; since all human transport normally starts and ends with walking, all passenger transport can be considered intermodal. Public transport may also involve the intermediate change of vehicle, within or across modes, at a transport hub, such as a bus or railway station.

International travel may be restricted for some indivials e to legislation and visa requirements.

[edit] Freight
Main article: Shipping
Freight transport, or shipping, is a key in the value chain in manufacturing.[14] With increased specialization and globalization, proction is being located further away from consumption, rapidly increasing the demand for transport.[15] While all modes of transport are used for cargo transport, there is high differentiation between the nature of the cargo transport, in which mode is chosen.[16] Logistics refers to the entire process of transferring procts from procer to consumer, including storage, transport, transshipment, warehousing, material-handling and packaging, with associated exchange of information.[17] Incoterm deals with the handling of payment and responsibility of risk ring transport.[18]

Freight train with containers in the United KingdomContainerization, with the standardization of ISO containers on all vehicles and at all ports, has revolutionized international and domestic trade, offering huge rection in transshipment costs. Traditionally, all cargo had to be manually loaded and unloaded into the haul of any ship or car; containerization allows for automated handling and transfer between modes, and the standardized sizes allow for gains in economy of scale in vehicle operation. This has been one of the key driving factors in international trade and globalization since the 1950s.[19]

Bulk transport is common with cargo that can be handled roughly without deterioration; typical examples are ore, coal, cereals and petroleum. Because of the uniformity of the proct, mechanical handling can allow enormous quantities to be handled quickly and efficiently. The low value of the cargo combined with high volume also means that economies of scale become essential in transport, and gigantic ships and whole trains are commonly used to transport bulk. Liquid procts with sufficient volume may also be transported by pipeline.

Air freight has become more common for procts of high value; while less than one percent of world transport by volume is by airline, it amounts to forty percent of the value. Time has become especially important in regards to principles such as postponement and just-in-time within the value chain, resulting in a high willingness to pay for quick delivery of key components or items of high value-to-weight ratio.[20] In addition to mail, common items send by air include electronics and fashion clothing.

[edit] History
Main article: History of transport

Bullock team hauling wool in AustraliaHumans first means of transport was walking and swimming. The domestication of animals introces a new way to lay the burden of transport on more powerful creatures, allowing heavier loads to be hauled, or humans to ride the animals for higher speed and ration. Inventions such as the wheel and sled helped make animal transport more efficient through the introction of vehicles. Also water transport, including rowed and sailed vessels, dates back to time immemorial, and was the only efficient way to transport large quantities or over large distances prior to the Instrial Revolution.

The first forms of road transport were horses, oxen or even humans carrying goods over dirt tracks that often followed game trails. Paved roads were first built by the Roman Empire, to allow armies to travel quicky; they built deep roadbeds of crushed stone as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from the crushed stone, instead of becoming mud in clay soils. The first watercraft were canoes cut out from tree trunks. Early water transport was accomplished with ships that were either rowed or used the wind for propulsion, or a combination of the two. The importance of water has led to most cities, that grew up as sites for trading, being located on rivers or at sea, ofter at the intersection of two bodies of water. Until the Instrial Revolution, transport remained slow and costly, and proction and consumption were located as close to each other as feasible.