1. 求關於化妝品市場營銷策略的外文翻譯資料
解決優化問題，一定要主機要穩定，另外還建議你用「旺道優化」，這款軟體是以人工優化原理開發的，絕對受用。可以做輔助優化，增加用戶體驗，穩定流量、經常更新信息等，排名是可以上首頁的。
2. 跪求化妝品銷售系統 的論文和英文翻譯 急急急急急急急
Cosmetic Sale
化妝品銷售時被忽略的渠道作價原則
價格是企業最敏感的話題，也最讓人頭疼。價格同時也是企業最保密的一個話題，無論哪家企業，都把作價體系和價格視為高度機密。在市場營銷中，價格就是SHOW HAND紙牌游戲中最後的一張蓋倒著的牌。
在多年的銷售實踐中，我發現價格、作價方式、渠道模式、產品分銷廣度、品牌之間存在著一種內在的聯系和規律，而這篇文章研究的焦點將集中在渠道和零售終端之間。
在研究了大多數品類產品的渠道作價體系之後，大體上表現為三種作價方式：
一、零售價倒扣作價法
顧名思義，倒扣作價法是從零售價格倒扣而成的作價方法。它包含了3個關鍵的價格位置：零售價格、供給零售終端的價格(或者稱之為批發價格)和製造商供給經銷商的價格(或者稱之為廠價、出廠價格)。
化妝品企業和某些以百貨商店為主要零售渠道的家電企業通常會採用零售價倒扣作價法。我們以化妝品為例，100元零售金額的商品，它通常供給零售終端的價格大約會在75元左右，製造商供給經銷商的價格大約會在65元左右。(這種價格體系並非一成不變，而是受到品牌強弱和分銷廣度的影響。)在上訴的假設中：
出廠價格的扣率=(100-65)÷100×100%=35%
批發價格的扣率=(100-75)÷100×100%=25%
在通常的銷售「行話」中，我們稱批發價扣率為75扣，廠價扣率為65扣。
在通常的零售價倒扣作價法中，商店的零售利潤率總是會略高於經銷商的批發利潤率。實際上它反映了零售商和經銷商不同的贏利方式。以化妝品為例，假設某家商店有10個品牌，它們的毛利率都是25%，那麼它的毛利就等於這些品牌的銷售總和×25%，而假設某家經銷商有2個品牌的批發毛利都是10%，他們共分銷了20家商店，那麼它的毛利就等於這2個品牌在20家店的銷售總和×10%。
我們知道投資回報率=資金周轉次數×毛利率，不管是零售商還是經銷商，他們的贏利水平都可以通過這個公式去理解，而從總體來說，在一個完全市場經濟的環境中，投資回報率不會有太過於巨大的差別，因為資本總會在這些投資項目中進行選擇，從總體上來講，哪怕暫時有暴利行業出現，也會有資本迅速地進入參與競爭，從而導致這個行業趨向社會平均的投資回報率(或者在一個資本可以容忍的差別之中)。這也是為什麼我們時常說市場已經進入一個微利時代的原因。
既然投資回報率在總體上會傾向於在同一水平線上，那麼資金周轉次數和毛利率就會具有一定程度上的反比關系，換句話說，你很難同時讓你的資金周轉次數和毛利率同時上升，因為這是資本的必然選擇。
在零售價格倒扣作價法，不難看出零售價格是假設恆定的。同樣通過對這些產品分銷和品牌的一些觀察研究，我們會發現採用這種作價法的產品大多分銷網點比較少(甚至不少僅僅局限於中高檔百貨商店)，並且大多都重視品牌形象。這些因素又有相輔相成的關系，注重品牌形象，所以溢價的可能性就存在。而分銷網點比較少，就需要追求更高的零售和批發利潤率(通過和後面兩種作價方式的比較我們可以得出結論，零售價倒扣作價法的利潤率是最高的)。上面我說過，這是資本的必然選擇，這是一隻看不見的手——資本會在一個自由經濟的環境下取得在GDP增長水平、銀行貸款利率和通貨膨脹系數等因素之間的回報率均衡。
二、批發價倒扣作價法
批發價倒扣作價法一般適用於在賣場和超市操作的產品。
假設一個供給超市，批發價格是10元的產品，它的零售價格是11.5元，它的廠價是9元。那麼我們可以說，
它的零售價格的加價率=(11.5—10)÷10×100%=15%，我們說它是批發價順加了15個點。
它的廠價扣率就是(10-9)÷10×100%=10%，我們說它是批發價格倒扣10個點。
一般而言，大多數供應給賣場和超市的快速消費品採用批發價倒扣作價法。它也有3個重要的價格位置，但是和第一種作價方式所不同的是它的作價基準是批發價格，也就是在理論上供給賣場和超市的價格。但是，它的零售價格的順加方式和第一種作價法有著很大的差別。這種方式也說明了此類產品的分銷渠道的特性。快速消費品的主流渠道是採用順加毛利方式作價的現代零售渠道，和傳統百貨商店的倒扣方式是有區別的。
而正如我們所觀察到的，超市產品通常比百貨商店的產品在各個門店的價格差異要大，而且毛利率也通常要低(分銷范圍越廣通常越低，但是超市自營產品通常較高)。這一方面說明了分銷的廣泛性勢必影響到價格的穩定性並且降低了商品的高毛利，另一方面也說明了超市產品的同質化程度比百貨商店來得嚴重，也說明了品牌溢價的能力在快速消費品領域要比化妝品、高檔家用電器等高附加價值的產品領域要低。
通常許多產品還會以批發價格倒扣幾個點的形式供給大型超市，這證明了兩個觀點，一是任何暢銷產品的利潤都會趨向於0，二是在現代零售渠道中，零售商的要價能力正越變越強，毫無疑問，銷售量決定了要價能力。不少製造商現在都把銷售渠道劃成了經銷商渠道和K/A渠道——也就是我們通常說的現代零售渠道。並且，現代零售渠道的供價正在逼近甚至低於經銷商的供價。即使從表面上看他們的供價還是高於經銷商，但是大量的價格外補貼已經彌補了這些差距。以寶潔為例，它們供給經銷商和K/A的價格就是一樣的。這種情況的產生，說明了分銷對價格體系是起著決定性作用的，而分銷的結果——銷量，正是對價格體系討價還價的最重要籌碼。
對於此類產品——在賣場和超市分銷的產品，我們可以預見到，在未來，隨著現代零售渠道的主導地位的確立，經銷商的作用將越變越小甚至在局部消失。因為K/A的要價能力已經不允許和製造商之間還存在一個利潤的剝奪者——經銷商。同樣，對於製造商而言，K/A將是它們未來的「經銷商」——我們通常稱之為直供客戶。而競爭的加劇和K/A要價能力的提高，這個渠道的批發價倒扣利潤率空間越來越少也是必然的趨勢。
三、廠價順加毛利作價法
這種作價方式普遍存在於大流通產品中。所謂的大流通產品是指分銷最為廣泛的產品。這些產品通常無法使用製造商或者經銷商的人員完全點對點地針對零售終端做銷售和服務工作，它還需要藉助批發商的力量進行分銷，我們有時候把這種分銷稱為自然分銷。
在上面兩種作價方法中，我們不難看出，分銷范圍越廣的產品，利潤率就越低。從投資回報率的角度講，我們要獲得一個比較穩定的投資回報率，那麼，利潤率越低就意味著對資金周轉次數的要求增高。通過對大流通產品的觀察我們不難發現，大流通產品分銷范圍廣泛，大多採取現款結算形式或者賬期極短，並且，周轉時間最短，周轉次數最多。
假設一個產品的出廠價格為1元，批發價格為10.1元，那麼，我們就說它加價了0.1元。而在實際操作中，大多數大流通產品以箱作為計量單位，假設這個產品為30元一箱，那麼它的批發價就是33元，我們說它加價了3元。
在經濟學中，有一個著名的市場需求曲線，它反映了一種商品的需求量如何隨著該物品的價格變動而變動。在現實中的大流通產品操作中，我們經常可以運用到這條曲線。市場通常對這類商品的價格非常敏感，他們已經不大需要百分比來估算這種敏感性，用的是元甚至角來計算。
在這類產品中，出廠價格也時常會產生變化，比如某些飲料就會有淡季和旺季價格，這也是為了用價格來增加產品的銷量，根據需求定理，價格的下降通常會引起需求量增加。
但是在這種作價方式中，我們很難列出零售價格的平均值。在作價體系中，通常作價的基準線離零售價格越遠，就說明了分銷的越發廣泛，但同時也說明了對零售終端的控制力的降低，同樣，零售價格的控制力也相應降低。尤其是通過批發渠道銷售的產品，批發層級不同，零售終端的形式不同，他們可能被分銷在夫妻老婆店、超市或者是便利店——他們的價格也就不盡相同。因為每種零售業態都有著符合他們投資回報率的加價方式。
渠道作價體系究竟說明了什麼
我們研究渠道作價體系的目的主要是探究產品的分銷特性、分銷數量、渠道各層級利潤率之間的關系，這種關系有助於我們理解和制定一個產品在各個時期的分銷策略。
以化妝品為例，通過分析我們可以得出以下結論。專櫃產品在進入賣場、超市甚至更為廣泛的分銷領域，必須以降低零售毛利率和批發毛利率作為代價，這也是渠道各個層級相互要價的必然結果。前身是專櫃產品的化妝品，在進入流通渠道之後，常常會出現「價格亂」的現象，但那大多是假象，事實是渠道各個層級之間的力量在迫使它成為一種類似於快速消費品的產品，但是，如果它不具備快速消費品那種存貨(或者在貿易中使用的流動資金)周轉的速度，看不見的手依然會把它的毛利率適當地調高，以期獲得正常的投資回報。
再以寶潔為例，盡管它還是以賣場超市作為主要渠道，但是，它驚人的銷量早已使之具備了大流通產品的特性，而事實上渠道也正在迫使寶潔採取等同於廠價順加毛利的作價方式。我經常聽到商家抱怨寶潔的毛利低，做1000萬生意只有多少利潤之類的話。但是這類話大多是經不住分析的，經過測算大多寶潔客戶的年資金周轉次數能達到20次，也就是說，每次只要有1%以上毛利率，他們就能維持20%以上的正常貿易的年投資回報率。而一個普通的超市產品，它的資金周轉次數每年大約在4次左右，它要想獲得等同於經營寶潔的投資回報率，就要有5%的利潤率。這種分析也說明了暢銷產品為什麼毛利低的道理。
渠道作價體系的分析，也說明了深度分銷為什麼大多遭遇失敗的原因，在大流通產品中，大多是以存貨周轉的次數獲得正常的投資回報率而並非是高毛利。深度分銷大大加大了人員成本，而這個時候你如果不能繼續增加存貨周轉次數(通常很難)，就不得不提高毛利率，而提高毛利率，又使得價格上升，需求量下降。所以，生意存在的方式自有它必然的經濟學道理，不按照規律地人為創造，是不可取的。
渠道作價體現也說明了品牌溢價能力只能存在於高端市場，因為價格對品牌本身具有殺傷能力，分銷同樣對品牌也有一定的負面影響，因為分銷與價格之間存在著聯系。尤其對於中國市場這點非常重要，「無處不在」的可口可樂在深度分銷領域的舉步維艱也無疑是受到了價格以及受其關聯的分銷成本的影響。
渠道作價體系是罕有人研究的領域，我以此拋磚小文與眾位同道與專家一起探討，並希望能進行更深入的研究和探索，總結出渠道作價體系之中的數學模型，並且能把「品牌」在渠道各個層級中的溢價能力用數字來進行測量，我想這必將對中國渠道、分銷的研究產生積極的影響。
3. 急！求關於市場營銷（最好是關於營銷策略的）的英文文獻2000字左右的，最好帶翻譯，在線等！
大家知道，企業管理包括生產管理、營銷管理和財務管理等多個方面，而財務管理是企業整個管理體系的核心，企業的財務管理目標即是企業追求的目標。可見，只有以財務管理為中心，協調運作管理體系的各個方面，才能有效地強化企業管理，促進企業發展。從全國來說，民營企業數量眾多、分布廣泛、特點各異，再加上受宏觀經濟環境化和體制影響，民營企業在加強財務管理方面遇到了一定的阻力，例如：政策的「歧視」使民營企業和大型企業不能公平競爭，地方政府、行業管理部門的干預，使民營企業的財務管理目標短期化，再主要的就是民營企業財務管理受業主的影響過大等一些主觀因素的存在，導致財務管理的重要性被忽視。所以，其財務管理中存在的問題也多種多樣，我認為，目前普遍存在的問題和原因主要有：
（一）融資困難，周轉資金不足，使財務管理成斷源之湖。
目前，我國民營企業初步建立了較為獨立、渠道多元的融資體系，但是，融資難、擔保難，仍然是制約民營企業發展的最突出的問題，主要問題是：第一，負債過多，融資成本高，風險大，造成民營企業信用等級低，資信相對較差。第二，大多數民營企業是非大型企業，有些銀行受傳統觀念和行政干預的影響，對其貸款不夠熱心。第三，中介機構不健全，缺乏專門為民營企業貸款服務的金融中介機構和貸款擔保機構。
分析其主要原因表現在兩個方面：一是金融業對民營企業的信貸支持不夠。我國金融系統從設置到服務項目，大都是以大企業為服務對象，民營企業的信貸服務往往被忽視。由於貸款難，生產經營過程中所需資金不足，極大制約了民營企業的發展。有的民營企業，雖存在暫時困難，但銀行一旦支持就能起死回生；二是民營企業的融資渠道單一，難以適應市場需求的變化。由於有的民營企業，在既得不到銀行的貸款支持，又不具有自我融資或向社會公開融資能力，無形中，加強企業財務管理也就成了一句空話，財務管理也就成了斷源之湖。
（二）財務控制薄弱，缺乏科學性，使財務管理舉步艱難。
大部分民營企業存在財務控制環節薄弱，而且對加強財務管理方面不夠重視，沒有從真正意義上理解財務管理在企業中的地位。主要問題有：一是資金管理不嚴，財務控制薄弱，造成資金閑置或不足。二是應收賬款周轉緩慢，造成資金回收困難。三是存貨控制薄弱，造成資金呆滯。四是重錢輕物，資產流失嚴重。
分析其原因主要是：一是有些民營企業認為現金越多越好，致使大量現金未參加周轉，有的是資金缺少計劃安排，過量購置不動產，而使企業無法應付經營急需的資金，陷入財務困境。二是沒有建立嚴格的賒銷政策，缺乏有力的摧收措施，應收款不能兌現或形成呆賬。三是很多民營企業月末存貨佔用資金往往超過其營業額的兩倍以上，造成資金呆滯周轉失靈。四是不少民營企業管理者，對原材料、半成品、固定資產等管理不到位，出了問題無人追究，資產浪費嚴重。分析以上原因，最重要的是因為企業上層領導財務管理觀念落後，缺乏科學性，在思想上沒有真正理解財務管理對做大做強一個企業所起到的作用，沒有將財務管理納入企業管理的有效機制中，缺乏現代財務管理觀念，使財務管理失去了它在企業管理中應有的地位和作用，舉步艱難。
（三）管理模式疆化，管理觀念陳舊，使財務管理暗然失色。
由於長期以來在思想上受到舊的財務制度的約束，企業管理人員的觀念比較滯後。主要問題有：一是企業的投資者同時就是經營者。二是企業管理者的管理能力和管理素質差，管理思想落後。
分析其原因主要是：民營企業典型的管理模式是所有權和經營權高度統一，企業的投資者同時就是經營者，這種模式勢必給企業的財務管理帶來負面影響，民營企業中相當一部分屬於個體私營性質，在這些企業中，企業領導者集權現象嚴重，並且對財務管理的理論方法缺乏應有的認識和研究，致使其職責不分，越權行事，造成財務管理混亂，財務監核不嚴，會計人員獨舟難行，想規范管理很難。大部分企業沒有或無法建立內部審計部門，即使有，也很難保證內部審計的獨立性。另外，有些企業沒有將財務管理納入企業管理的有效機制中，缺乏現代財務管理觀念，多數民營企業家尚未建立起諸如時間價值、風險價值、邊際成本、機會成本等科學管理的概念，由於管理模式疆化，管理觀念陳舊，使財務管理暗然失色，失去了它在企業管理中應有的地位和作用。
First, the privately operated enterprise the question and the reasonanalysis which exists in the financial control As everybody knows, business management including proctionmanagement, marketing management and financial control and so on manyaspects, but the financial control is the enterprise entire managementsystem core, enterprise's financial control goal is a goal which theenterprise pursues. Obviously, only has take the financial control asthe center, the coordination operates management system each aspect,can effectively strengthen the business management, the promotionenterprise develops.Said from the nation that, the privately operated enterprise quantitymultitudinous, distributed is widespread, the characteristicrespectively differently, in addition receives the macroscopiceconomic environment and the system influence, the privately operatedenterprise was strengthening the financial control aspect to meet thecertain resistance, for example: The policy "the discrimination"causes the privately operated enterprise and the major instry cannotthe fair competition, the local authority, the profession controlsection's intervention, causes the privately operated enterprise thefinancial control goal short-term, again is main is the privatelyoperated enterprise financial control owner's influence oversized andso on some subjective factors existences, causes the financial controlthe importance to neglect. Therefore, in its financial control existsquestion also many and varied, I believed, at present the universalexistence question and the reason mainly have: .
(1) financing difficulty, the revolving fund is insufficient, causeslake of the financial control Cheng Duanyuan. At present, the our country privately operated enterprise initiallyestablished has been independent, the channel many Yuan financingsystem, but, financed difficultly, to guarantee difficultly, still wasthe most prominent question which the restriction privately operatedenterprise developed, the main question was: First, is in debtexcessively many, financing cost high, risk big, creates the privatelyoperated enterprise credit rank low, helps the letter relatively to beworse. Second, the majority privately operated enterprise right andwrong major instry, some banks the traditional ideas and theadministrative intervention influence, insufficiently are warm-heartedto its loan. Third, the facilitating agency is not perfect, lacksspecially the financial facilitating agency and the loan guaranteeorganization which serves for the privately operated enterprise loan. Analyzes its main reason to display in two aspects: One is the financeinstry is insufficient to the privately operated enterprise's creditaid. Our country finance system from establishes to the serviceproject, mostly is take the big enterprise as the service object, theprivately operated enterprise's credit service is often neglected.Because the loan is difficult, in the proction management processneeds the fund to be insufficient, enormously has restricted theprivately operated enterprise's development. Some privately operatedenterprises, although exists temporarily difficultly, but the bankonce supports can bring back to life; Two is the privately operatedenterprise's financing channel is unitary, adapts the market demandchange with difficulty. As a result of some privately operatedenterprises, in both cannot obtain the bank the loan support, and doesnot have self- financing or to the social public financing ability,imperceptibly, strengthened the enterprise financial control also tobecome an empty talk, the financial control has also become mediateslake of the source.
(2) financial control is weak, lacks the scientific nature, causes thefinancial control to take a step difficultly. The majority of privately operated enterprises have the financialcontrol link to be weak, moreover to strengthens the financial controlaspect insufficiently to take, has not understood the financialcontrol from the true significance in enterprise's status. The mainquestion includes: One is the fund management is lax, financialcontrol weak, creates the fund to leave unused or to be insufficient.Two is the receivable account funds turnover is slow, causes the fundrecycling difficulty. Three, the inventory control is weak, createsthe fund delay. Four is re- Qian Qingwu, the property drainsseriously. Analyzes its reason mainly is: One is some privately operatedenterprises thought cash more the better, causes the massive cashesnot to participate in the turnover, some are the fund lacks the planarrangement, excessive purchase real estate, but causes the enterpriseto be unable to deal with the management urgently needed fund, fallsinto the financial difficult position. Two is does not have theestablishment strict selling on credit policy, lacks powerfullydestroys receives the measure, should receive money cannot cash orform the ll account. Three is very many privately operatedenterprises end of the month the goods in stock takes the fund oftento surpass its turnover above two times, creates the fund delayturnover to malfunction. Four is many privately operated enterprisessuperintendents, to management and so on raw material, half-finishedproct, fixed asset did not arrive, leaves question nobody toinvestigate, the property waste was serious. Above analyzes thereason, most importantly because the enterprise upper formationleadership financial control idea is backward, lacks the scientificnature, the untrue understanding financial control to does in thethought greatly makes the role which the strong enterprise plays, hasnot bought into line with the financial control the businessmanagement in the effective mechanism, lacks the modern financialcontrol idea, caused the financial control to lose it the status andthe function which should have in the business management, took a stepdifficultly.
3) management pattern boundary, manages the idea obsoletely, causesthe financial control to be dark however 失色. Because receives the old financial system since long ago in thethought the restraint, business management personnel's idea comparisonlag. The main question includes: One is at the same time enterprise'sinvestor is the operator. Two is the enterprise superintendent'smanagement ability and the management quality bad, manages the thoughtto be backward. Analyzes its reason mainly is: The privately operated enterprise modelmanagement pattern is the property rights and the operating righthighly unifies, at the same time enterprise's investors is theoperator, this kind of pattern inevitably will give the enterprise thefinancial control to bring the negative influence, in the privatelyoperated enterprise quite a part will belong to the indivial tooperate privately the nature, in these enterprises, enterprise leadercentralization phenomenon serious, and will lack the understanding andthe research to the financial control theory method which will besupposed to have, will cause its responsibility not to divide, exceedsauthority to handle affairs, creates the financial control chaotic,the finance will supervise the nucleus not to be lax, accountant thepersonnel alone boat difficult line, to think the standard managementwill be very difficult. The majority of enterprises not or are unableto establish the interior auditing department, even if has, also isvery difficult to guarantee the internal audit the independence.Moreover, some enterprises have not bought into line with thefinancial control the business management in the effective mechanism,lacks the modern financial control idea, the most privateenterpreneurs not yet establish such as scientific management the andso on time value, risk value, marginal cost, opportunity cost concept,as a result of the management pattern boundary, manages the ideaobsoletely, causes the financial control to be dark however 失色,has lost it the status and the function which should have in thebusiness management.
4. 急求關於營銷策略的外文文獻，最好有翻譯的
免費文獻可以到OA圖書館查找。
翻譯得自己翻譯或者找人付費了。
5. 誰能給我一篇關於營銷策略研究方面的英文文獻
外文文獻可以用你們圖書館的外文資料庫檢索, 如www.sciencedirect.com, www.springerlink.com
自己去找吧 學校裡面可以下載到回的！英文關鍵詞答可以利用www.iciba.com網站翻譯～
6. zara的市場營銷策略的英文文獻
這些都是國外網站上的，沒有中文翻譯的，看不懂的話試試翻譯器，查查字典什麼的，我要是給你翻譯怕誤導你。
Zara: Cool Clothes Now, Not Later
Ask any urban European female under the age of 30 and chances are she has shopped at Zara, the clothier whose inexpensive but stylish offerings have attracted a cult following. Zara also sells men』s fashions, again aimed at the stylish and youthful.
Mathieu Soto, a college tennis player from France with dark eyes and devastating good looks, was asked to compare Zara to The Gap, the U.S. - based clothing giant with a major presence in Europe. His response: 「I don』t know. I』ve never shopped at The Gap.」
Most U.S. young alts have never shopped at Zara, but that seems likely to change in the near future. In the past five years Zara has grown from 179 stores mostly in Spain to 450 stores in 29 countries including the United States and Canada. Zara now has stores in New York, New Jersey, Miami, and Toronto—with more on the way.
While Zara is unlikely to displace The Gap in the U.S. market, they are certain to offer U.S. consumers an option previously unavailable to them. They have a sound if unusual marketing strategy in which logistics plays an important role. Logistics also plays an important role in Zara』s growth plans, notably its expansion into the U.S. market.
Zara』s Marketing Strategy
Zara』s marketing strategy focuses on proct variety, speed-to-market, and store location. It is also notable for what it excludes. Zara does not advertise in the traditional sense. If you want to find out what』s currently available at the Zara stores you have two options: go to the web site or go to the store. Zara puts 10,000 different items on the store shelves in a single year. It can take a new style from concept to store shelf in 10-14 days in an instry where nine months is the norm. In its primary European markets, Zara locates its stores close together. Visitors comment that Zara in Madrid is like Starbucks in a major U.S. city—you see another store on every street corner.
Zara』s Toronto store is located just north of the center of downtown in a major shopping district dense with malls and lined with stand-alone stores and giant office buildings. The potential for intense competition is clear.
「These office buildings are full of the people we want as customers. We want them to stop in at lunch or after work. We want to see them often, so we have to change what we have on the shelves,」 said Zara』s Toronto store manager. 「They could shop in a lot of other stores, so we have to make it worth their time to come here.」
This also helps explain why the company does not advertise. If a Zara customer wants to know what Zara has, he or she must go to the store. The stock changes often, with most items staying on the shelf for only a month, so the customer often finds something new and appealing. By the same token, if the customer finds nothing to buy this visit, the store』s regular customers know that tomorrow or next week—sometime soon—new goods will be on Zara』s shelves. That makes it worth another visit.
Zara relies heavily on store employees for market information. If a customer looks at a sweater and comments, 「That would look really nice with a cowl collar,」 an employee can relay that information to Spain where managers decide whether or not to proce the suggested item. If they decide to make it, they can put it on the shelf in Toronto in two weeks or less, partly because they ship by air. Ocean shipping would add at least another ten days to the time it takes to get the proct in front of the customer, undermining the speed-to-market and proct variety strategy.
The Role of Logistics
Putting the variety of goods on the shelves in Toronto and other North American stores requires an unusual, though not unique, logistics strategy for the fashion instry. Zara air expresses goods from its single distribution center in Spain, usually in small quantities. In the 1970』s, The Limited used a similar strategy to support its test marketing, air expressing small quantities of new styles from Asia to U.S. stores. In Zara』s strategy, however, the speedy shipments are part of the core strategy, not just test marketing. Zara also ships frequently, allowing lower inventories while serving its multinational market from a single distribution center in Spain.
「We receive shipments o n Tuesday and Saturday, which means that we have different items in the store at least twice a week. While each shipment replenishes items that sell well, each also includes new items. That』s why our customers come in often,」 the Toronto store manager said. 「We might get ten of one item and five of another. We』re constantly testing.」
The density of Zara』s store locations in Europe helps achieve logistics efficiencies. They can fill trucks for frequent shipment in markets close to proction and ship larger quantities by air to more distant stores. Zara keeps transportation costs low on the supply side, since most of the proction takes place in Spain. This contrasts radically to most large fashion manufacturers, which rely on low cost manufacturing in Asia and South America, but then pay higher inventory costs and move goods to market more slowly.
The air express strategy also allows Zara to maintain a multinational market presence with only one distribution center. They trade higher transportation costs for lower warehousing and inventory costs. Add to this the idea that fast transportation
supports the proct-innovation strategy that is the heart of Zara』s marketing, and the importance of logistics in Zara』s marketing strategy is clear.
The Results and the Future
Zara』s parent company, Inditex, reached $2.7 billion in 2001 revenue. This made it the fastest growing clothing manufacturer in the world. Zara, Inditex』s fastest growing division, turns its inventory twice as fast as major competitors, with an inventory-to-sales of 7% compared to an instry average of 14%. Their profitability in European operations (15%) is fifty percent higher than that of its major competitors. Zara manufactures 80% of its clothing in Europe, with most of the remaining 20% is sourced in Mexico.
While top managers are understandably closed-mouthed about their plans, Zara seems ideally positioned to penetrate the U.S. market in a major way. With some manufacturing already in Mexico, they could easily open a second distribution center aimed directly at the U.S. market. This would make their youth-oriented styles widely available in the world』s most lucrative market.
Question 1 – Zara』s Business Model and Competitive Analysis
Zara, the most profitable brand of Inditex SA, the Spanish clothing retail group, opened its first store in 1975 in La Coruña, Spain; a city which eventually became the central headquarters for Zara』s global operations. Since then they have expanded operations into 45 countries with 531 stores located in the most important shopping districts of more than 400 cities in Europe, the Americas, Asia and Africa. Throughout this expansion Zara has remained focused on its core fashion philosophy that creativity and quality design together with a rapid response to market demands will yield profitable results. In order to realized these results Zara developed a business model that incorporated the following three goals for operations: develop a system the requires short lead times, decrease quantities proced to decrease inventory risk, and increase the number of available styles and/or choice. These goals helped to formulate a unique value proposition: to combine moderate prices with the ability to offer new clothing styles faster than its competitors. These three goals helped to shape Zara』s current business model.
Zara』s Business Model
Zara』s business model can be broken down into three basic components: concept, capabilities, and value drivers. Zara』s fundamental concept is to maintain design, proction, and distribution processes that will enable Zara to respond quickly to shifts in consumer demands. José María Castellano, CEO of Inditex stated that "the fashion world is in constant flux and is driven not by supply but by customer demand. We need to give consumers what they want, and if I go to South America or Asia to make clothes, I simply can't move fast enough." This highlights the importance of this quick response time to Zara』s operations.
Capabilities of Zara, or the required resources needed to exploit the opportunities and execute this conceptual strategy, are numerous for Zara. Zara maintains tight control over their proction processes keeping design and manufacturing in-house or with some strategic partnerships located nearby Headquarters. Currently, Zara maintains 80% of its proction processes in Europe, 50% in Spain which is very close to La Coruña headquarters. They have strategic agreements with local manufacturers that ensure timely delivery and service. Through these strategic partnerships and the benefits brought by this proximity of manufacturing and operational processes, Zara maintains the flexibility necessary to design and proce over 12000 new items annually. This capability allows Zara to achieve their strategy of expedited response to consumer demand.
Value drivers for Zara are both tangible and intangible in the benefits that are returned to all stakeholders. Tangibly, Inditex, the parent company of Zara, has 11.02% net margin on operations and their market capitalization (Equity – market value) is
7. 急求營銷英文參考文獻
wikipedia "marketing" 有非常多的連結
中英文都有
Marketing is an integrated communications-based process through which indivials and communities discover that existing and newly-identified needs and wants may be satisfied by the procts and services of others.
Marketing is defined by the American Marketing Association as the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large. The term developed from the original meaning which referred literally to going to market, as in shopping, or going to a market to buy or sell goods or services.
Marketing practice tends to be seen as a creative instry, which includes advertising, distribution and selling. It is also concerned with anticipating the customers' future needs and wants, which are often discovered through market research. Seen from a systems point of view, sales process engineering views marketing as a set of processes that are interconnected and interdependent with other functions, whose methods can be improved using a variety of relatively new approaches.
Marketing is influenced by many of the social sciences, particularly psychology, sociology, and economics. Anthropology and neuroscience are also small but growing influences. Market research underpins these activities through advertising, it is also related to many of the creative arts. The marketing literature is also infamous for re-inventing itself and its vocabulary according to the times and the culture.
Four Ps
Main article: Marketing mix
In the early 1960s, Professor Neil Borden at Harvard Business School identified a number of company performance actions that can influence the consumer decision to purchase goods or services. Borden suggested that all those actions of the company represented a 「Marketing Mix」. Professor E. Jerome McCarthy, also at the Harvard Business School in the early 1960s, suggested that the Marketing Mix contained 4 elements: proct, price, place and promotion.
* Proct: The proct aspects of marketing deal with the specifications of the actual goods or services, and how it relates to the end-user's needs and wants. The scope of a proct generally includes supporting elements such as warranties, guarantees, and support.
* Pricing: This refers to the process of setting a price for a proct, including discounts. The price need not be monetary; it can simply be what is exchanged for the proct or services, e.g. time, energy, or attention. Methods of setting prices optimally are in the domain of pricing science.
* Placement (or distribution): refers to how the proct gets to the customer; for example, point-of-sale placement or retailing. This third P has also sometimes been called Place, referring to the channel by which a proct or service is sold (e.g. online vs. retail), which geographic region or instry, to which segment (young alts, families, business people), etc. also referring to how the environment in which the proct is sold in can affect sales.
* Promotion: This includes advertising, sales promotion, publicity, and personal selling. Branding refers to the various methods of promoting the proct, brand, or company.