1. 求关于化妆品市场营销策略的外文翻译资料
解决优化问题，一定要主机要稳定，另外还建议你用“旺道优化”，这款软件是以人工优化原理开发的，绝对受用。可以做辅助优化，增加用户体验，稳定流量、经常更新信息等，排名是可以上首页的。
2. 跪求化妆品销售系统 的论文和英文翻译 急急急急急急急
Cosmetic Sale
化妆品销售时被忽略的渠道作价原则
价格是企业最敏感的话题，也最让人头疼。价格同时也是企业最保密的一个话题，无论哪家企业，都把作价体系和价格视为高度机密。在市场营销中，价格就是SHOW HAND纸牌游戏中最后的一张盖倒着的牌。
在多年的销售实践中，我发现价格、作价方式、渠道模式、产品分销广度、品牌之间存在着一种内在的联系和规律，而这篇文章研究的焦点将集中在渠道和零售终端之间。
在研究了大多数品类产品的渠道作价体系之后，大体上表现为三种作价方式：
一、零售价倒扣作价法
顾名思义，倒扣作价法是从零售价格倒扣而成的作价方法。它包含了3个关键的价格位置：零售价格、供给零售终端的价格(或者称之为批发价格)和制造商供给经销商的价格(或者称之为厂价、出厂价格)。
化妆品企业和某些以百货商店为主要零售渠道的家电企业通常会采用零售价倒扣作价法。我们以化妆品为例，100元零售金额的商品，它通常供给零售终端的价格大约会在75元左右，制造商供给经销商的价格大约会在65元左右。(这种价格体系并非一成不变，而是受到品牌强弱和分销广度的影响。)在上诉的假设中：
出厂价格的扣率=(100-65)÷100×100%=35%
批发价格的扣率=(100-75)÷100×100%=25%
在通常的销售“行话”中，我们称批发价扣率为75扣，厂价扣率为65扣。
在通常的零售价倒扣作价法中，商店的零售利润率总是会略高于经销商的批发利润率。实际上它反映了零售商和经销商不同的赢利方式。以化妆品为例，假设某家商店有10个品牌，它们的毛利率都是25%，那么它的毛利就等于这些品牌的销售总和×25%，而假设某家经销商有2个品牌的批发毛利都是10%，他们共分销了20家商店，那么它的毛利就等于这2个品牌在20家店的销售总和×10%。
我们知道投资回报率=资金周转次数×毛利率，不管是零售商还是经销商，他们的赢利水平都可以通过这个公式去理解，而从总体来说，在一个完全市场经济的环境中，投资回报率不会有太过于巨大的差别，因为资本总会在这些投资项目中进行选择，从总体上来讲，哪怕暂时有暴利行业出现，也会有资本迅速地进入参与竞争，从而导致这个行业趋向社会平均的投资回报率(或者在一个资本可以容忍的差别之中)。这也是为什么我们时常说市场已经进入一个微利时代的原因。
既然投资回报率在总体上会倾向于在同一水平线上，那么资金周转次数和毛利率就会具有一定程度上的反比关系，换句话说，你很难同时让你的资金周转次数和毛利率同时上升，因为这是资本的必然选择。
在零售价格倒扣作价法，不难看出零售价格是假设恒定的。同样通过对这些产品分销和品牌的一些观察研究，我们会发现采用这种作价法的产品大多分销网点比较少(甚至不少仅仅局限于中高档百货商店)，并且大多都重视品牌形象。这些因素又有相辅相成的关系，注重品牌形象，所以溢价的可能性就存在。而分销网点比较少，就需要追求更高的零售和批发利润率(通过和后面两种作价方式的比较我们可以得出结论，零售价倒扣作价法的利润率是最高的)。上面我说过，这是资本的必然选择，这是一只看不见的手——资本会在一个自由经济的环境下取得在GDP增长水平、银行贷款利率和通货膨胀系数等因素之间的回报率均衡。
二、批发价倒扣作价法
批发价倒扣作价法一般适用于在卖场和超市操作的产品。
假设一个供给超市，批发价格是10元的产品，它的零售价格是11.5元，它的厂价是9元。那么我们可以说，
它的零售价格的加价率=(11.5—10)÷10×100%=15%，我们说它是批发价顺加了15个点。
它的厂价扣率就是(10-9)÷10×100%=10%，我们说它是批发价格倒扣10个点。
一般而言，大多数供应给卖场和超市的快速消费品采用批发价倒扣作价法。它也有3个重要的价格位置，但是和第一种作价方式所不同的是它的作价基准是批发价格，也就是在理论上供给卖场和超市的价格。但是，它的零售价格的顺加方式和第一种作价法有着很大的差别。这种方式也说明了此类产品的分销渠道的特性。快速消费品的主流渠道是采用顺加毛利方式作价的现代零售渠道，和传统百货商店的倒扣方式是有区别的。
而正如我们所观察到的，超市产品通常比百货商店的产品在各个门店的价格差异要大，而且毛利率也通常要低(分销范围越广通常越低，但是超市自营产品通常较高)。这一方面说明了分销的广泛性势必影响到价格的稳定性并且降低了商品的高毛利，另一方面也说明了超市产品的同质化程度比百货商店来得严重，也说明了品牌溢价的能力在快速消费品领域要比化妆品、高档家用电器等高附加价值的产品领域要低。
通常许多产品还会以批发价格倒扣几个点的形式供给大型超市，这证明了两个观点，一是任何畅销产品的利润都会趋向于0，二是在现代零售渠道中，零售商的要价能力正越变越强，毫无疑问，销售量决定了要价能力。不少制造商现在都把销售渠道划成了经销商渠道和K/A渠道——也就是我们通常说的现代零售渠道。并且，现代零售渠道的供价正在逼近甚至低于经销商的供价。即使从表面上看他们的供价还是高于经销商，但是大量的价格外补贴已经弥补了这些差距。以宝洁为例，它们供给经销商和K/A的价格就是一样的。这种情况的产生，说明了分销对价格体系是起着决定性作用的，而分销的结果——销量，正是对价格体系讨价还价的最重要筹码。
对于此类产品——在卖场和超市分销的产品，我们可以预见到，在未来，随着现代零售渠道的主导地位的确立，经销商的作用将越变越小甚至在局部消失。因为K/A的要价能力已经不允许和制造商之间还存在一个利润的剥夺者——经销商。同样，对于制造商而言，K/A将是它们未来的“经销商”——我们通常称之为直供客户。而竞争的加剧和K/A要价能力的提高，这个渠道的批发价倒扣利润率空间越来越少也是必然的趋势。
三、厂价顺加毛利作价法
这种作价方式普遍存在于大流通产品中。所谓的大流通产品是指分销最为广泛的产品。这些产品通常无法使用制造商或者经销商的人员完全点对点地针对零售终端做销售和服务工作，它还需要借助批发商的力量进行分销，我们有时候把这种分销称为自然分销。
在上面两种作价方法中，我们不难看出，分销范围越广的产品，利润率就越低。从投资回报率的角度讲，我们要获得一个比较稳定的投资回报率，那么，利润率越低就意味着对资金周转次数的要求增高。通过对大流通产品的观察我们不难发现，大流通产品分销范围广泛，大多采取现款结算形式或者账期极短，并且，周转时间最短，周转次数最多。
假设一个产品的出厂价格为1元，批发价格为10.1元，那么，我们就说它加价了0.1元。而在实际操作中，大多数大流通产品以箱作为计量单位，假设这个产品为30元一箱，那么它的批发价就是33元，我们说它加价了3元。
在经济学中，有一个著名的市场需求曲线，它反映了一种商品的需求量如何随着该物品的价格变动而变动。在现实中的大流通产品操作中，我们经常可以运用到这条曲线。市场通常对这类商品的价格非常敏感，他们已经不大需要百分比来估算这种敏感性，用的是元甚至角来计算。
在这类产品中，出厂价格也时常会产生变化，比如某些饮料就会有淡季和旺季价格，这也是为了用价格来增加产品的销量，根据需求定理，价格的下降通常会引起需求量增加。
但是在这种作价方式中，我们很难列出零售价格的平均值。在作价体系中，通常作价的基准线离零售价格越远，就说明了分销的越发广泛，但同时也说明了对零售终端的控制力的降低，同样，零售价格的控制力也相应降低。尤其是通过批发渠道销售的产品，批发层级不同，零售终端的形式不同，他们可能被分销在夫妻老婆店、超市或者是便利店——他们的价格也就不尽相同。因为每种零售业态都有着符合他们投资回报率的加价方式。
渠道作价体系究竟说明了什么
我们研究渠道作价体系的目的主要是探究产品的分销特性、分销数量、渠道各层级利润率之间的关系，这种关系有助于我们理解和制定一个产品在各个时期的分销策略。
以化妆品为例，通过分析我们可以得出以下结论。专柜产品在进入卖场、超市甚至更为广泛的分销领域，必须以降低零售毛利率和批发毛利率作为代价，这也是渠道各个层级相互要价的必然结果。前身是专柜产品的化妆品，在进入流通渠道之后，常常会出现“价格乱”的现象，但那大多是假象，事实是渠道各个层级之间的力量在迫使它成为一种类似于快速消费品的产品，但是，如果它不具备快速消费品那种存货(或者在贸易中使用的流动资金)周转的速度，看不见的手依然会把它的毛利率适当地调高，以期获得正常的投资回报。
再以宝洁为例，尽管它还是以卖场超市作为主要渠道，但是，它惊人的销量早已使之具备了大流通产品的特性，而事实上渠道也正在迫使宝洁采取等同于厂价顺加毛利的作价方式。我经常听到商家抱怨宝洁的毛利低，做1000万生意只有多少利润之类的话。但是这类话大多是经不住分析的，经过测算大多宝洁客户的年资金周转次数能达到20次，也就是说，每次只要有1%以上毛利率，他们就能维持20%以上的正常贸易的年投资回报率。而一个普通的超市产品，它的资金周转次数每年大约在4次左右，它要想获得等同于经营宝洁的投资回报率，就要有5%的利润率。这种分析也说明了畅销产品为什么毛利低的道理。
渠道作价体系的分析，也说明了深度分销为什么大多遭遇失败的原因，在大流通产品中，大多是以存货周转的次数获得正常的投资回报率而并非是高毛利。深度分销大大加大了人员成本，而这个时候你如果不能继续增加存货周转次数(通常很难)，就不得不提高毛利率，而提高毛利率，又使得价格上升，需求量下降。所以，生意存在的方式自有它必然的经济学道理，不按照规律地人为创造，是不可取的。
渠道作价体现也说明了品牌溢价能力只能存在于高端市场，因为价格对品牌本身具有杀伤能力，分销同样对品牌也有一定的负面影响，因为分销与价格之间存在着联系。尤其对于中国市场这点非常重要，“无处不在”的可口可乐在深度分销领域的举步维艰也无疑是受到了价格以及受其关联的分销成本的影响。
渠道作价体系是罕有人研究的领域，我以此抛砖小文与众位同道与专家一起探讨，并希望能进行更深入的研究和探索，总结出渠道作价体系之中的数学模型，并且能把“品牌”在渠道各个层级中的溢价能力用数字来进行测量，我想这必将对中国渠道、分销的研究产生积极的影响。
3. 急！求关于市场营销（最好是关于营销策略的）的英文文献2000字左右的，最好带翻译，在线等！
大家知道，企业管理包括生产管理、营销管理和财务管理等多个方面，而财务管理是企业整个管理体系的核心，企业的财务管理目标即是企业追求的目标。可见，只有以财务管理为中心，协调运作管理体系的各个方面，才能有效地强化企业管理，促进企业发展。从全国来说，民营企业数量众多、分布广泛、特点各异，再加上受宏观经济环境化和体制影响，民营企业在加强财务管理方面遇到了一定的阻力，例如：政策的“歧视”使民营企业和大型企业不能公平竞争，地方政府、行业管理部门的干预，使民营企业的财务管理目标短期化，再主要的就是民营企业财务管理受业主的影响过大等一些主观因素的存在，导致财务管理的重要性被忽视。所以，其财务管理中存在的问题也多种多样，我认为，目前普遍存在的问题和原因主要有：
（一）融资困难，周转资金不足，使财务管理成断源之湖。
目前，我国民营企业初步建立了较为独立、渠道多元的融资体系，但是，融资难、担保难，仍然是制约民营企业发展的最突出的问题，主要问题是：第一，负债过多，融资成本高，风险大，造成民营企业信用等级低，资信相对较差。第二，大多数民营企业是非大型企业，有些银行受传统观念和行政干预的影响，对其贷款不够热心。第三，中介机构不健全，缺乏专门为民营企业贷款服务的金融中介机构和贷款担保机构。
分析其主要原因表现在两个方面：一是金融业对民营企业的信贷支持不够。我国金融系统从设置到服务项目，大都是以大企业为服务对象，民营企业的信贷服务往往被忽视。由于贷款难，生产经营过程中所需资金不足，极大制约了民营企业的发展。有的民营企业，虽存在暂时困难，但银行一旦支持就能起死回生；二是民营企业的融资渠道单一，难以适应市场需求的变化。由于有的民营企业，在既得不到银行的贷款支持，又不具有自我融资或向社会公开融资能力，无形中，加强企业财务管理也就成了一句空话，财务管理也就成了断源之湖。
（二）财务控制薄弱，缺乏科学性，使财务管理举步艰难。
大部分民营企业存在财务控制环节薄弱，而且对加强财务管理方面不够重视，没有从真正意义上理解财务管理在企业中的地位。主要问题有：一是资金管理不严，财务控制薄弱，造成资金闲置或不足。二是应收账款周转缓慢，造成资金回收困难。三是存货控制薄弱，造成资金呆滞。四是重钱轻物，资产流失严重。
分析其原因主要是：一是有些民营企业认为现金越多越好，致使大量现金未参加周转，有的是资金缺少计划安排，过量购置不动产，而使企业无法应付经营急需的资金，陷入财务困境。二是没有建立严格的赊销政策，缺乏有力的摧收措施，应收款不能兑现或形成呆账。三是很多民营企业月末存货占用资金往往超过其营业额的两倍以上，造成资金呆滞周转失灵。四是不少民营企业管理者，对原材料、半成品、固定资产等管理不到位，出了问题无人追究，资产浪费严重。分析以上原因，最重要的是因为企业上层领导财务管理观念落后，缺乏科学性，在思想上没有真正理解财务管理对做大做强一个企业所起到的作用，没有将财务管理纳入企业管理的有效机制中，缺乏现代财务管理观念，使财务管理失去了它在企业管理中应有的地位和作用，举步艰难。
（三）管理模式疆化，管理观念陈旧，使财务管理暗然失色。
由于长期以来在思想上受到旧的财务制度的约束，企业管理人员的观念比较滞后。主要问题有：一是企业的投资者同时就是经营者。二是企业管理者的管理能力和管理素质差，管理思想落后。
分析其原因主要是：民营企业典型的管理模式是所有权和经营权高度统一，企业的投资者同时就是经营者，这种模式势必给企业的财务管理带来负面影响，民营企业中相当一部分属于个体私营性质，在这些企业中，企业领导者集权现象严重，并且对财务管理的理论方法缺乏应有的认识和研究，致使其职责不分，越权行事，造成财务管理混乱，财务监核不严，会计人员独舟难行，想规范管理很难。大部分企业没有或无法建立内部审计部门，即使有，也很难保证内部审计的独立性。另外，有些企业没有将财务管理纳入企业管理的有效机制中，缺乏现代财务管理观念，多数民营企业家尚未建立起诸如时间价值、风险价值、边际成本、机会成本等科学管理的概念，由于管理模式疆化，管理观念陈旧，使财务管理暗然失色，失去了它在企业管理中应有的地位和作用。
First, the privately operated enterprise the question and the reasonanalysis which exists in the financial control As everybody knows, business management including proctionmanagement, marketing management and financial control and so on manyaspects, but the financial control is the enterprise entire managementsystem core, enterprise's financial control goal is a goal which theenterprise pursues. Obviously, only has take the financial control asthe center, the coordination operates management system each aspect,can effectively strengthen the business management, the promotionenterprise develops.Said from the nation that, the privately operated enterprise quantitymultitudinous, distributed is widespread, the characteristicrespectively differently, in addition receives the macroscopiceconomic environment and the system influence, the privately operatedenterprise was strengthening the financial control aspect to meet thecertain resistance, for example: The policy "the discrimination"causes the privately operated enterprise and the major instry cannotthe fair competition, the local authority, the profession controlsection's intervention, causes the privately operated enterprise thefinancial control goal short-term, again is main is the privatelyoperated enterprise financial control owner's influence oversized andso on some subjective factors existences, causes the financial controlthe importance to neglect. Therefore, in its financial control existsquestion also many and varied, I believed, at present the universalexistence question and the reason mainly have: .
(1) financing difficulty, the revolving fund is insufficient, causeslake of the financial control Cheng Duanyuan. At present, the our country privately operated enterprise initiallyestablished has been independent, the channel many Yuan financingsystem, but, financed difficultly, to guarantee difficultly, still wasthe most prominent question which the restriction privately operatedenterprise developed, the main question was: First, is in debtexcessively many, financing cost high, risk big, creates the privatelyoperated enterprise credit rank low, helps the letter relatively to beworse. Second, the majority privately operated enterprise right andwrong major instry, some banks the traditional ideas and theadministrative intervention influence, insufficiently are warm-heartedto its loan. Third, the facilitating agency is not perfect, lacksspecially the financial facilitating agency and the loan guaranteeorganization which serves for the privately operated enterprise loan. Analyzes its main reason to display in two aspects: One is the financeinstry is insufficient to the privately operated enterprise's creditaid. Our country finance system from establishes to the serviceproject, mostly is take the big enterprise as the service object, theprivately operated enterprise's credit service is often neglected.Because the loan is difficult, in the proction management processneeds the fund to be insufficient, enormously has restricted theprivately operated enterprise's development. Some privately operatedenterprises, although exists temporarily difficultly, but the bankonce supports can bring back to life; Two is the privately operatedenterprise's financing channel is unitary, adapts the market demandchange with difficulty. As a result of some privately operatedenterprises, in both cannot obtain the bank the loan support, and doesnot have self- financing or to the social public financing ability,imperceptibly, strengthened the enterprise financial control also tobecome an empty talk, the financial control has also become mediateslake of the source.
(2) financial control is weak, lacks the scientific nature, causes thefinancial control to take a step difficultly. The majority of privately operated enterprises have the financialcontrol link to be weak, moreover to strengthens the financial controlaspect insufficiently to take, has not understood the financialcontrol from the true significance in enterprise's status. The mainquestion includes: One is the fund management is lax, financialcontrol weak, creates the fund to leave unused or to be insufficient.Two is the receivable account funds turnover is slow, causes the fundrecycling difficulty. Three, the inventory control is weak, createsthe fund delay. Four is re- Qian Qingwu, the property drainsseriously. Analyzes its reason mainly is: One is some privately operatedenterprises thought cash more the better, causes the massive cashesnot to participate in the turnover, some are the fund lacks the planarrangement, excessive purchase real estate, but causes the enterpriseto be unable to deal with the management urgently needed fund, fallsinto the financial difficult position. Two is does not have theestablishment strict selling on credit policy, lacks powerfullydestroys receives the measure, should receive money cannot cash orform the ll account. Three is very many privately operatedenterprises end of the month the goods in stock takes the fund oftento surpass its turnover above two times, creates the fund delayturnover to malfunction. Four is many privately operated enterprisessuperintendents, to management and so on raw material, half-finishedproct, fixed asset did not arrive, leaves question nobody toinvestigate, the property waste was serious. Above analyzes thereason, most importantly because the enterprise upper formationleadership financial control idea is backward, lacks the scientificnature, the untrue understanding financial control to does in thethought greatly makes the role which the strong enterprise plays, hasnot bought into line with the financial control the businessmanagement in the effective mechanism, lacks the modern financialcontrol idea, caused the financial control to lose it the status andthe function which should have in the business management, took a stepdifficultly.
3) management pattern boundary, manages the idea obsoletely, causesthe financial control to be dark however 失色. Because receives the old financial system since long ago in thethought the restraint, business management personnel's idea comparisonlag. The main question includes: One is at the same time enterprise'sinvestor is the operator. Two is the enterprise superintendent'smanagement ability and the management quality bad, manages the thoughtto be backward. Analyzes its reason mainly is: The privately operated enterprise modelmanagement pattern is the property rights and the operating righthighly unifies, at the same time enterprise's investors is theoperator, this kind of pattern inevitably will give the enterprise thefinancial control to bring the negative influence, in the privatelyoperated enterprise quite a part will belong to the indivial tooperate privately the nature, in these enterprises, enterprise leadercentralization phenomenon serious, and will lack the understanding andthe research to the financial control theory method which will besupposed to have, will cause its responsibility not to divide, exceedsauthority to handle affairs, creates the financial control chaotic,the finance will supervise the nucleus not to be lax, accountant thepersonnel alone boat difficult line, to think the standard managementwill be very difficult. The majority of enterprises not or are unableto establish the interior auditing department, even if has, also isvery difficult to guarantee the internal audit the independence.Moreover, some enterprises have not bought into line with thefinancial control the business management in the effective mechanism,lacks the modern financial control idea, the most privateenterpreneurs not yet establish such as scientific management the andso on time value, risk value, marginal cost, opportunity cost concept,as a result of the management pattern boundary, manages the ideaobsoletely, causes the financial control to be dark however 失色,has lost it the status and the function which should have in thebusiness management.
4. 急求关于营销策略的外文文献，最好有翻译的
免费文献可以到OA图书馆查找。
翻译得自己翻译或者找人付费了。
5. 谁能给我一篇关于营销策略研究方面的英文文献
外文文献可以用你们图书馆的外文数据库检索, 如www.sciencedirect.com, www.springerlink.com
自己去找吧 学校里面可以下载到回的！英文关键词答可以利用www.iciba.com网站翻译～
6. zara的市场营销策略的英文文献
这些都是国外网站上的，没有中文翻译的，看不懂的话试试翻译器，查查字典什么的，我要是给你翻译怕误导你。
Zara: Cool Clothes Now, Not Later
Ask any urban European female under the age of 30 and chances are she has shopped at Zara, the clothier whose inexpensive but stylish offerings have attracted a cult following. Zara also sells men’s fashions, again aimed at the stylish and youthful.
Mathieu Soto, a college tennis player from France with dark eyes and devastating good looks, was asked to compare Zara to The Gap, the U.S. - based clothing giant with a major presence in Europe. His response: “I don’t know. I’ve never shopped at The Gap.”
Most U.S. young alts have never shopped at Zara, but that seems likely to change in the near future. In the past five years Zara has grown from 179 stores mostly in Spain to 450 stores in 29 countries including the United States and Canada. Zara now has stores in New York, New Jersey, Miami, and Toronto—with more on the way.
While Zara is unlikely to displace The Gap in the U.S. market, they are certain to offer U.S. consumers an option previously unavailable to them. They have a sound if unusual marketing strategy in which logistics plays an important role. Logistics also plays an important role in Zara’s growth plans, notably its expansion into the U.S. market.
Zara’s Marketing Strategy
Zara’s marketing strategy focuses on proct variety, speed-to-market, and store location. It is also notable for what it excludes. Zara does not advertise in the traditional sense. If you want to find out what’s currently available at the Zara stores you have two options: go to the web site or go to the store. Zara puts 10,000 different items on the store shelves in a single year. It can take a new style from concept to store shelf in 10-14 days in an instry where nine months is the norm. In its primary European markets, Zara locates its stores close together. Visitors comment that Zara in Madrid is like Starbucks in a major U.S. city—you see another store on every street corner.
Zara’s Toronto store is located just north of the center of downtown in a major shopping district dense with malls and lined with stand-alone stores and giant office buildings. The potential for intense competition is clear.
“These office buildings are full of the people we want as customers. We want them to stop in at lunch or after work. We want to see them often, so we have to change what we have on the shelves,” said Zara’s Toronto store manager. “They could shop in a lot of other stores, so we have to make it worth their time to come here.”
This also helps explain why the company does not advertise. If a Zara customer wants to know what Zara has, he or she must go to the store. The stock changes often, with most items staying on the shelf for only a month, so the customer often finds something new and appealing. By the same token, if the customer finds nothing to buy this visit, the store’s regular customers know that tomorrow or next week—sometime soon—new goods will be on Zara’s shelves. That makes it worth another visit.
Zara relies heavily on store employees for market information. If a customer looks at a sweater and comments, “That would look really nice with a cowl collar,” an employee can relay that information to Spain where managers decide whether or not to proce the suggested item. If they decide to make it, they can put it on the shelf in Toronto in two weeks or less, partly because they ship by air. Ocean shipping would add at least another ten days to the time it takes to get the proct in front of the customer, undermining the speed-to-market and proct variety strategy.
The Role of Logistics
Putting the variety of goods on the shelves in Toronto and other North American stores requires an unusual, though not unique, logistics strategy for the fashion instry. Zara air expresses goods from its single distribution center in Spain, usually in small quantities. In the 1970’s, The Limited used a similar strategy to support its test marketing, air expressing small quantities of new styles from Asia to U.S. stores. In Zara’s strategy, however, the speedy shipments are part of the core strategy, not just test marketing. Zara also ships frequently, allowing lower inventories while serving its multinational market from a single distribution center in Spain.
“We receive shipments o n Tuesday and Saturday, which means that we have different items in the store at least twice a week. While each shipment replenishes items that sell well, each also includes new items. That’s why our customers come in often,” the Toronto store manager said. “We might get ten of one item and five of another. We’re constantly testing.”
The density of Zara’s store locations in Europe helps achieve logistics efficiencies. They can fill trucks for frequent shipment in markets close to proction and ship larger quantities by air to more distant stores. Zara keeps transportation costs low on the supply side, since most of the proction takes place in Spain. This contrasts radically to most large fashion manufacturers, which rely on low cost manufacturing in Asia and South America, but then pay higher inventory costs and move goods to market more slowly.
The air express strategy also allows Zara to maintain a multinational market presence with only one distribution center. They trade higher transportation costs for lower warehousing and inventory costs. Add to this the idea that fast transportation
supports the proct-innovation strategy that is the heart of Zara’s marketing, and the importance of logistics in Zara’s marketing strategy is clear.
The Results and the Future
Zara’s parent company, Inditex, reached $2.7 billion in 2001 revenue. This made it the fastest growing clothing manufacturer in the world. Zara, Inditex’s fastest growing division, turns its inventory twice as fast as major competitors, with an inventory-to-sales of 7% compared to an instry average of 14%. Their profitability in European operations (15%) is fifty percent higher than that of its major competitors. Zara manufactures 80% of its clothing in Europe, with most of the remaining 20% is sourced in Mexico.
While top managers are understandably closed-mouthed about their plans, Zara seems ideally positioned to penetrate the U.S. market in a major way. With some manufacturing already in Mexico, they could easily open a second distribution center aimed directly at the U.S. market. This would make their youth-oriented styles widely available in the world’s most lucrative market.
Question 1 – Zara’s Business Model and Competitive Analysis
Zara, the most profitable brand of Inditex SA, the Spanish clothing retail group, opened its first store in 1975 in La Coruña, Spain; a city which eventually became the central headquarters for Zara’s global operations. Since then they have expanded operations into 45 countries with 531 stores located in the most important shopping districts of more than 400 cities in Europe, the Americas, Asia and Africa. Throughout this expansion Zara has remained focused on its core fashion philosophy that creativity and quality design together with a rapid response to market demands will yield profitable results. In order to realized these results Zara developed a business model that incorporated the following three goals for operations: develop a system the requires short lead times, decrease quantities proced to decrease inventory risk, and increase the number of available styles and/or choice. These goals helped to formulate a unique value proposition: to combine moderate prices with the ability to offer new clothing styles faster than its competitors. These three goals helped to shape Zara’s current business model.
Zara’s Business Model
Zara’s business model can be broken down into three basic components: concept, capabilities, and value drivers. Zara’s fundamental concept is to maintain design, proction, and distribution processes that will enable Zara to respond quickly to shifts in consumer demands. José María Castellano, CEO of Inditex stated that "the fashion world is in constant flux and is driven not by supply but by customer demand. We need to give consumers what they want, and if I go to South America or Asia to make clothes, I simply can't move fast enough." This highlights the importance of this quick response time to Zara’s operations.
Capabilities of Zara, or the required resources needed to exploit the opportunities and execute this conceptual strategy, are numerous for Zara. Zara maintains tight control over their proction processes keeping design and manufacturing in-house or with some strategic partnerships located nearby Headquarters. Currently, Zara maintains 80% of its proction processes in Europe, 50% in Spain which is very close to La Coruña headquarters. They have strategic agreements with local manufacturers that ensure timely delivery and service. Through these strategic partnerships and the benefits brought by this proximity of manufacturing and operational processes, Zara maintains the flexibility necessary to design and proce over 12000 new items annually. This capability allows Zara to achieve their strategy of expedited response to consumer demand.
Value drivers for Zara are both tangible and intangible in the benefits that are returned to all stakeholders. Tangibly, Inditex, the parent company of Zara, has 11.02% net margin on operations and their market capitalization (Equity – market value) is
7. 急求营销英文参考文献
wikipedia "marketing" 有非常多的连结
中英文都有
Marketing is an integrated communications-based process through which indivials and communities discover that existing and newly-identified needs and wants may be satisfied by the procts and services of others.
Marketing is defined by the American Marketing Association as the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large. The term developed from the original meaning which referred literally to going to market, as in shopping, or going to a market to buy or sell goods or services.
Marketing practice tends to be seen as a creative instry, which includes advertising, distribution and selling. It is also concerned with anticipating the customers' future needs and wants, which are often discovered through market research. Seen from a systems point of view, sales process engineering views marketing as a set of processes that are interconnected and interdependent with other functions, whose methods can be improved using a variety of relatively new approaches.
Marketing is influenced by many of the social sciences, particularly psychology, sociology, and economics. Anthropology and neuroscience are also small but growing influences. Market research underpins these activities through advertising, it is also related to many of the creative arts. The marketing literature is also infamous for re-inventing itself and its vocabulary according to the times and the culture.
Four Ps
Main article: Marketing mix
In the early 1960s, Professor Neil Borden at Harvard Business School identified a number of company performance actions that can influence the consumer decision to purchase goods or services. Borden suggested that all those actions of the company represented a “Marketing Mix”. Professor E. Jerome McCarthy, also at the Harvard Business School in the early 1960s, suggested that the Marketing Mix contained 4 elements: proct, price, place and promotion.
* Proct: The proct aspects of marketing deal with the specifications of the actual goods or services, and how it relates to the end-user's needs and wants. The scope of a proct generally includes supporting elements such as warranties, guarantees, and support.
* Pricing: This refers to the process of setting a price for a proct, including discounts. The price need not be monetary; it can simply be what is exchanged for the proct or services, e.g. time, energy, or attention. Methods of setting prices optimally are in the domain of pricing science.
* Placement (or distribution): refers to how the proct gets to the customer; for example, point-of-sale placement or retailing. This third P has also sometimes been called Place, referring to the channel by which a proct or service is sold (e.g. online vs. retail), which geographic region or instry, to which segment (young alts, families, business people), etc. also referring to how the environment in which the proct is sold in can affect sales.
* Promotion: This includes advertising, sales promotion, publicity, and personal selling. Branding refers to the various methods of promoting the proct, brand, or company.